114. Neumann, Kaffee, 69, 151. Denmark had small colonies in the Virgin Islands, from where it took its rum, but mainly imported its coffee from Brazil and Guatemala.
115. Michelle Craig McDonald & Steven Topik, ‘Americanizing Coffee’, in: Alexander Nützenadel & Frank Trentmann, eds., Food and Globalization: Consumption, Markets and Politics in the Modern World (Oxford, 2008), 109–28.
116. Martin Bruegel, ‘A Bourgeois Good? Sugar, Norms of Consumption and the Labouring Classes in Nineteenth-century France,’ in: Peter Scholliers, Food, Drink and Identity: Cooking, Eating and Drinking in Europe since the Middle Ages (Oxford, 2001), 99–118.
117. Hamburger Staatsarchiv, 314-1/B VIII 8, ‘Berichte von Angestellten der Deputation über Konsumverhältnisse in ihnen bekannten Orten’, 20 May 1878, my translation.
118. Julia Laura Rischbieter, ‘Kaffee im Kaiserreich’, PhD thesis, Frankfurt (Oder), 2009, 283; see now her book: Mikro-Ökonomie der Globalisierung (Cologne, 2011). Hamburger Staatsarchiv, 314-1/B VIII 8, 12 May 1878 (on Magdeburg). For brandy and coffee in France, see W. Scott Haine, The World of the Paris Café: Sociability among the French Working Class, 1789–1914 (Baltimore, 1998).
119. In Essen, it stopped serving beer during work hours only in 1910.
120. For example, the St Georg hospital in Hamburg 1875, Hamburger Staatsarchiv, HH 314-1, B VIII, no. 19.
121. Illustrated London News, August 1885; Graphic, 19 Sept. 1896; and Penny Illustrated Paper, 1 Aug. 1896, 66, and 26 Oct. 1901, 272.
122. Roman Rossfeld, Schweizer Schokolade: Industrielle Produktion und kulturelle Konstruktion eines nationalen Symbols, 1860–1920 (Baden, 2007).
123. Jan De Vries, The Economy of Europe in an Age of Crisis, 1600–1750 (Cambridge, 1976), 71–3.
124. J. R. Peet, ‘The Spatial Expansion of Commercial Agriculture in the Nineteenth Century’, Economic Geography 45, 1969: 283–301.
125. David T. Courtwright, Forces of Habit: Drugs and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, MA, 2001), 53–66.
126. See further: David Anderson et al., The Khat Controversy: Stimulating the Debate on Drugs (Oxford, 2007).
127. Erika Rappaport, ‘Packaging China: Foreign Articles and Dangerous Tastes in the Mid-Victorian Tea Party’, in: Frank Trentmann, ed., The Making of the Consumer: Knowledge, Power and Identity in the Modern World (Oxford, 2006), 125–46, quoted at 131 (1851).
128. See Peter H. Hoffenberg, An Empire on Display: English, Indian and Australian Exhibitions from the Crystal Palace to the Great War (Berkeley, CA, 2001), quoted at 115.
129. Colonial provenance, this suggests, continued to matter in cases where it signalled white Anglo-Saxon control of the value chain. This extends to the white settler colonies, as in the marketing of ‘Canadian salmon’.
130. Kolleen M. Guy, When Champagne became French: Wine and the Making of a National Identity (Baltimore, MD, 2003).
131. Kai-Uwe Hellmann, Soziologie der Marke (Frankfurt am Main, 2003), Part I. See now also: T. da Silva Lopes & Paulo Guimaraes, ‘Trademarks and British Dominance in Consumer Goods, 1876–1914’, in: Economic History Review, Vol. 67, issue 3, 2014: 793–817.
132. Quoted from Manuel Llorca-Jana, The British Textile Trade in South America in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 2012), 92. John Potter Hamilton, Travels through the Interior Provinces of Colombia (London, 1827), Vol I, 139 and Vol. II, 76, quoted at 120. I am grateful to Ana Maria Otero-Cleves for this reference, whose 2011 Oxford PhD thesis (‘From Fashionable Pianos to Cheap White Cotton: Consuming Foreign Commodities in Nineteenth-century Colombia’) discusses these flows in greater detail. Benjamin Orlove, ed., The Allure of the Foreign: Imported Goods in Post-colonial Latin America (Michigan, 1997).
135. See Gary Magee & Andrew Thompson, Empire and Globalization: Networks of People, Goods and Capital in the British World, c.1850–1914 (Cambridge, 2010), and the roundtable in British Scholar Journal, III, Sept. 2010.
136. Richard Wilk, Home Cooking in the Global Village: Caribbean Food from Buccaneers to Ecotourists (Oxford, 2006). For approaches to commodity chains, see Foster: ‘Tracking Globalization: Commodities and Value in Motion’.
137. Thomas Richards, The Commodity Culture of Victorian England: Advertising and Spectacle, 1851–1914 (Stanford, CA, 1990), 144.
138. Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (London, 1995), 36.
139. Whitehall Review Annual, 1881–2, repr. in Anandi Ramamurthy, Imperial Persuaders: Images of Africa and Asia in British Advertising (Manchester, 2003), 67.
140. Penny Illustrated Paper, 23 Feb. 1901, 144, and 26 Oct. 1901, 272.
141. The Times, 24 Oct. 1910, 14.
142. Arthur Girault, The Colonial Tariff Policy of France (Oxford, 1916); and Rae Beth Gordon, ‘Natural Rhythm: La Parisienne Dances with Darwin: 1875–1910’, Modernism/modernity 10, no. 4, 2003: 617–56.
143. Deutsches Historisches Museum, Berlin, P 57/1452 (Hofer, Kaffee-Messmer); Rischbieter, ‘Kaffee im Kaiserreich’, 227–31; Volker Ilgen & Dirk Schindelbeck, Am Anfang war die Litfasssäule (Darmstadt, 2006), plate 13 (Stollwerck). Of the 400 coffee and cocoa posters in the collection of Les Arts Decoratifs in Paris, there are, similarly, only a handful with exotic images. Some coffee makers retained a Moorish association, but even here ethnic image and regional origin could be confused, as in the case of ‘Mohren-Kaffee’, by A. L. Mohr, Hamburg-Bahrenfeld, which was a mix of genuine exotic beans and local substitutes, advertised for making a stronger (kräftiger) brew than real beans of average quality.
144. Claudia Baldioni & Jonathan Morris, ‘La globalizzazione dell’espresso italiano’, Memoria e Ricerca, XIV, 23, 2006, 27–47.
CHAPTER 4
1. Sombart, Luxus und Kapitalismus, 28–41.
2. Max Weber, Economy and Society, 1922/1978, eds. G. Roth & C. Wittich (Berkeley, CA), 125–6.
3. Bairoch, De Jéricho à Mexico: Villes et économie dans l’histoire, 373–6, 516–42. For different types of cities, see now: Jürgen Osterhammel, Die Verwandlung der Welt (Munich, 2009), section VI.
4. Julius Rodenberg, ‘Die vierundzwanzig Stunden von Paris’, in: Paris bei Sonnenschein und Lampenlicht, ed. Julius Rodenberg (Berlin, 1867), 1–54, quoted on 40, my translation. He refers to 40,000 public lamps. The actual number was half that; see references in the next note.
5. Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage, Recueil des travaux et compte rendu des séances, sixième session, Genève – Juillet, 1924 (Cambridge, 1926), 288; Léon Clerbois, ‘Histoire de l’éclairage public à Bruxelles’, Annales de la société d’archéologie de Bruxelles 24, 1910, 175.
6. The Gas World Year Book 1913 (London, 1913); J. C. Toer & Asociados, eds., Gas Stories in Argentina, 1823–1998 (Buenos Aires, 1998). Electricity spread later and is discussed in the chapter on the home; for these networks, see Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930 (Baltimore, MD, 1983).
7. Journal of Gas Lighting, Water Supply, etc., CX (1910), 10 May 1910, 371–5; John F. Wilson, Lighting the Town: A Study of Management in the North-west Gas Industry, 1805–1880 (Liverpool, 1991), 167; Charles W. Hastings, Gas Works Statistics (1880; 1884); The Gas World Year Book 1913; and Gas in Home, Office and Factory: Hints on Health, Comfort and Economy – Popular Lectures at the National Gas Congress and Exhibition, London, October 1913 (London, 1913).
8. J. T. Fanning, A Practical Treatise on Hydraulic and Water-supply Engineering (New York, 1902, 15th edn), 41. Throughout the text I have converted figures into US gallons (3.8 litres) for consistency. One imperial (UK) gallon, which ceased to be a legal unit in 2000, is 4.5 litres.
9. Richard L. Bushman & Claudia L. Bushman, ‘The Early History of Cleanliness in America’, in: Journal of American History 74, no. 4, 1988: 1213–38; see also: E. Shove, Comfort, Cleanliness and Convenience: The Social Organization of Normality (Oxford, 2003).
10. John Simon, English Sanitary Institutions (London, 1897, 2nd edn), 466.
11. Jean-Pierre Goubert, The Conquest of Water: The Advent of Health in the Industrial Age (Princeton, NJ, 1989), 150–1.
12. A. R. Binnie, Royal Commission on Metropolitan Water Supply 1893–94, XL, Part I, 18 June 1892, para. 3235.
13. Elizabeth Otis Williams, Sojourning, Shopping and Studying in Paris: A Handbook Particularly for Women (London, 1907), 34; Shanghai Municipal Council, Annual Report, 1935, 188; Hanchao Lu, ‘The Significance of the Insignificant: Reconstructing the Daily Lives of the Common People of China’, in: China: An International Journal 1, no. 1, 2003: 144–58; and Goubert, Conquest of Water, 62.
14. Shanghai Municipal Archive, Annual Report of the Shanghai Municipal Council, 1905, 152; Shahrooz Mohajeri, 100 Jahre Berliner Wasserversorgung und Abwasserentsorgung 1840–1940 (Stuttgart, 2005), 71 f.; Maureen Ogle, ‘Water Supply, Waste Disposal and the Culture of Privatism inthe Mid-nineteenth-century American City’, in: Journal of Urban History 25, no. 3, 1999: 321–47; R. Wilkinson & E. M. Sigsworth, ‘A Survey of Slum Clearance Areas in Leeds’, in: Yorkshire Bulletin of Social and Economic Research, Vol. 15/1, 1963, 25–47; Clemens Zimmermann, Von der Wohnungsfrage zur Wohnungspolitik (Göttingen, 1991); Petri S. Juuti & Tapio S. Katko, eds., From a Few to All: Long-term Development of Water and Environmental Services in Finland (Finland, 2004), 19f.; and Petri S. Juuti & Tapio S. Katko, eds., Water, Time and European Cities (Tampere, 2005).
15. Ruth Rogaski, Hygienic Modernity: Meanings of Health and Disease in Treaty-port China (Berkeley, CA, 2004), 212–24; and Sidney D. Gamble, Peking: A Social Survey (London, 1921), 31.
16. F. Bramwell in a memorandum to the Royal Commission on Water Supply (1900), Vol. 39, Appendix Z, 6, 406.
17. Vanessa Taylor & Frank Trentmann, ‘Liquid Politics: Water and the Politics of Everyday Life in the Modern City’, in: Past & Present 211, 2011: 199–241.
18. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, ‘The Consumption Junction: A Proposal for Research Strategies in the Sociology of Technology’, in: The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, eds. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes & Trevor J. Pinch (Cambridge, MA, 1987), 261–80.
19. Clémentine Deroudille, Brassens: Le Libertaire de la chanson (Paris, 2011), 26–7.
20. Constance Williams &Arthur Martin in Gas in Home –Popular Lectures, 49–72. See further: Martin Daunton, House and Home in the Victorian City (London, 1983); and Judith Flanders, The Victorian House (London, 2004), 168–73.
21. Henry Letheby, ‘Report on the Coal Gas Supplied to the City of London’ (London, 1854); John Simon, ‘Report by the Medical Officer of Health on Complaints of Nuisance from the City of London Gas Company’s Works’ (London, 1855); and Toer & Asociados, eds., Gas Stories in Argentina.
22. Manuel Charpy, ‘Le Théâtre des objets: espaces privés, culture matérielle et identité bourgeoise, Paris 1830–1914’, PhD thesis, Université François-Rabelais de Tours, 2010, Vol. I, 249–71.
23. Jun’ichirō Tanizaki, In Praise of Shadows (1933/1977).
24. Jens Hanssen, Fin de siècle Beirut: The Making of an Ottoman Provincial Capital (Oxford, 2005), 200; and Edward Seidensticker, Low City, High City: Tokyo from Edo to the Earthquake (London, 1983), 80–1.
25. Haydn T. Harrison, ‘Street Lighting’, in: Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage, 1924, 277, and for the 1911 tests.
26. Journal of Gas Lighting, Water supply, etc. CXII (1910), quoted at 473 and 471.
27. Lynda Nead, Victorian Babylon: People, Streets and Images in Nineteenth-century London (New Haven, CT, 2000); Joachim Schlör, Nights in the Big City (London, 1998); Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Lichtblicke: Zur künstlichen Helligkeit im 19. Jahrhundert (Munich, 1983); and Chris Otter, The Victorian Eye: A Political History of Light and Vision in Britain, 1800–1910 (Chicago, 2008).
28. Robert Millward, ‘European Governments and the Infrastructure Industries, c.1840–1914’, in: European Review of Economic History 8, 2004: 3–28, also for below. Martin V. Melosi, The Sanitary City (Baltimore, MD, 2000).
29. P. J. Waller, Town, City and Nation: England 1850–1914 (Oxford, 1983), 300. See further Robert Millward & Robert Ward, ‘From Private to Public Ownership of Gas Undertakings in England and Wales, 1851–1947’, Business History 35, no. 3, 1993: 1–21; and Wilson, Lighting the Town.
30. John Henry Gray, Die Stellung der privaten Beleuchtungsgesellschaften zu Stadt und Staat (Jena, 1893); Martin Daunton, ‘The Material Politics of Natural Monopoly: Consuming Gas in Victorian Britain’, in: The Politics of Consumption: Material Culture and Citizenship in Europe and America, eds. Martin Daunton & Matthew Hilton (Oxford, 2001), 69–88.
31. W. H. Y. Webber, ‘Gas Meter’, and John Young, ‘Hints to Gas Consumers’, in: Gas in the Home –Popular Lectures, 1913, 85–99; and Graeme J. N. Gooday, The Morals of Measurement: Accuracy, Irony and Trust in Late-Victorian Electrical Practice (Cambridge, 2004).
32. Christopher Hamlin, ‘Muddling in Bumbledom: On the Enormity of Large Sanitary Improvements in Four British Towns, 1855–1885’, Victorian Studies 32, 1988: 55–83; and M. J. Daunton, ‘Public Place and Private Space: The Victorian City and the Working-class Household’, in: The Pursuit of Urban History, eds. Derek Fraser & Anthony Sutcliffe (London, 1983).
33. Taylor & Trentmann, ‘Liquid Politics’.
34. A. Dobbs, By Meter or Annual Value? (London, 1890), 30, my emphasis.
35. James H. Fuertes, Waste of Water in New York and Its Reduction by Meters and Inspection: Report to the Committee on Water-supply of the Merchants’ Association of New York (New York, 1906), 84.
36. Royal Commission on Metropolitan Water Supply 1893–94, XL, Part I, Minutes of Evidence, 5 Oct. 1892, 7353–4.
37. Royal Commission on Water Supply (1900), Cd. 25, Final Report, para. 178, 74.
38. Fuertes, Waste of Water, 100.
39. Fuertes, Waste of Water, 56.
40. Fuertes, Waste of Water, 42.
41. Royal Commission on Water Supply (1900), Cd. 25, Final Report, paras 176–80. See also: W. R. Baldwin-Wiseman, ‘The Increase in the National Consumption of Water’, in: Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 72, no. 2, 1909: 248–303, esp. 259.
42. Royal Commission on Metropolitan Water Supply, 1893–94, XL, Part I, 5 Oct. 1892, 7358.
43. Patrick Joyce, The Rule of Freedom: Liberalism and the Modern City (London, 2003); and Tom Crook, ‘Power, Privacy and Pleasure: Liberalism and the Modern Cubicle’, in: Cultural Studies 21, no. 4–5, 2007: 549–69.
44. Richard Wollheim, Germs: A Memoir of Childhood (London, 2004), 132; Fuertes, Waste of Water, 30; and Goubert, Conquest of Water, 131.
45. Roger-Henri Guerrand, Les Lieux: Histoire des commodités (Paris, 1997), 157.
46. M. Thiele & W. Schickenberg, Die Verhältnisse von 534 Stadthannoverschen kinderreichen Kriegerfamilien (Hanover, 1919), 8; and Clemens Wischermann, Wohnen in Hamburg (Münster, 1983).
47. Interview no. 28, P. Thompson & T. Lummis, Family Life and Work Experience before 1918, 1870–1973, Colchester, Essex: UK Data Archive.
48. Madeleine Yue Dong, Republican Beijing: The City and Its Histories (Berkeley, CA, 2003), ch. 6. For South City, see Gamble, Peking: A Social Survey, 235–9.
49. Claire Holleran, Shopping in Ancient Rome: The Retail Trade in the Late Republic and the Principate (Oxford, 2012).
50. Sombart, Luxus und Kapitalismus.
51. Rosalind H. Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late-nineteenth-century France (Berkeley, CA, 1982), 67.
52. S. Faroqhi, Towns and Townsmen of Ottoman Anatolia (Cambridge, 1984).
53. Claire Walsh, ‘The Newness of the Department Store: A View from the Eighteenth Century’, in: Geoffrey Crossick & Serge Jaumain, eds., Cathedrals of Consumption: The European Department Store, 1850–1939 (Aldershot, 1999), 46–71; Claire Walsh, ‘Shops, Shoppping and the Art of Decision Making in Eighteenth-century England’, in: Gender, Taste and Material Culture in Britain and North America, 1700–1830, eds. John Style
s & Amanda Vickery (New Haven, CT, 2006); Welch, Shopping in the Renaissance; Jon Stobart, Sugar and Spice: Grocers and Groceries in Provincial England, 1650–1830 (Oxford, 2012); Tammy Whitlock, Crime, Gender and Consumer Culture in Nineteenth-century England (Aldershot, 2005); Karen Newman, Cultural Capitals: Early Modern London and Paris (Princeton, NJ, 2007); John Benson & Laura Ugolini, eds., A Nation of Shopkeepers: Five Centuries of British Retailing (London, 2003); and Isobel Armstrong, Victorian Glassworlds: Glass Culture and the Imagination, 1830–1880 (Oxford, 2008), 134–41.
54. The literature is too vast to list in full. In addition to later references, I have drawn especially on Michael B. Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869–1920 (London, 1981); Crossick & Jaumain, eds., Cathedrals of Consumption; Bill Lancaster, The Department Store (Leicester, 1995); H. Pasdermadjian, The Department Store: Its Origins, Evolution and Economics (London, 1954); and Erika D. Rappaport, Shopping for Pleasure: Women and the Making of London’s West End (Princeton, NJ, 2000).
55. Richard Dennis, Cities in Modernity (Cambridge, 2008), 311; see also: Richards, The Commodity Culture of Victorian England: Advertising and Spectacle, 1851–1914.
56. Roger Gravil, The Anglo-Argentine Connection, 1900–1939 (Boulder, CO, 1985), 92–4, 107; and Wellington K. K. Chan, ‘Selling Goods and Promoting a New Commercial Culture’, in: Sherman Cochran, Inventing Nanking Road: Commercial Culture in Shanghai, 1900–1945 (Ithaca, NY, 1999), 19–36.
57. Harrod’s Stores Ltd, Harrod’s Catalogue 1895 (Newton Abbot, 1972 facsimile), 816, 879, 1128, 1156.
58. Harrod’s Stores Ltd, A Story of British Achievement, 1849–1949 (London, 1949).
59. Olivia’s Shopping and How She Does It: A Prejudiced Guide to the London Shops (London, 1906), 62–3. For sales and credit in eighteenth-century shops, see now: Natacha Coquery, Tenir boutique à Paris au XVIIIe siècle: Luxe et demi-luxe (Paris, 2011), ch. 7.
60. Émile Zola, The Ladies’ Paradise, trans. Brian Nelson (Oxford, 1883/1995), 397–8, 418–19.
61. Zola, The Ladies’ Paradise, 77, 104, 117, 240.
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