A note on the texts
These stories, all by Jain monks, come from a variety of texts, some written in Sanskrit and some written in Prakrit. They date roughly from the seventh to the fifteenth century C.E. The texts were written in different styles and represent different genres in the extensive corpus of Jain literature. Most of the texts I selected belong to the Śvetāmbara sect, which was strongest in northwest India. Only a few belong to the Digambara sect, which was centered further south. Some of the texts are collections of didactic tales, which often include stories of different length, some of which may be very short. The Brhatkathākośa, Mūlaśuddhiprakarana and Kathākośa belong to this genre of writing. The stories in such collections are diverse and it is difficult, if not impossible, to identify a common theme. For this reason I would hesitate to consider the Kuvalayamālā as simply a didactic story collection, although many of the stories that it tells also appear in the standard anthologies of this type. The Kuvalayamālā sets its didactic stories within a larger frame story, somewhat in the style of a medieval romance, and the sequential rebirth narratives provide an overall structure that is missing in the didactic collections. Didactic stories also were transmitted through the rich commentaries added to explicate various texts, canonical and extra-canonical. One story in this collection of translations comes from a late commentary to the Nandīsutta.
In their retelling of both the great Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana, Jains authors could either tell the revised epic as a whole or privilege certain stories from it. My translation of the story of Nala and Damayaṃtī actually comes from the Kumārapālapratibodha, where the story is told as a warning against the evils of gambling. My examples of medieval biography writing are taken from the Pariśistaparvan and Prabandhakośa, texts which are actually very different in style. The Prabandakośa is written in a racy colloquial Sanskrit, while the Pariśistaparvan is written in the more refined style of Sanskrit court poetry. Both of these texts also contain sections that could well be considered examples of medieval Jain history writing. By contrast, the Kumārapālapratibodha (The Awakening of King Kumārapāla) has only a short section on contemporary history; it is really a didactic story collection. The Upamitibhavaprapañcakathā, a selection from which concludes this book, is a unique text. Its author describes the text as an autobiography. As the selection included here makes clear, it is an autobiography of a soul over numerous rebirths; it is also an allegory. I have also included stories from two different pilgrimage texts. The Vividhatīrthakalpa is a collection of short entries on different pilgrimage places. Some of the entries are in verse and some are in prose; some are in Sanskrit and some in Prakrit. The author, a fourteenth-century Śvetāmbara monk, tells us that he visited many of the places and collected the stories from various sources. The Śātruñjayakalpavrtti is a commentary on a short verse text in praise of one of the most famous Jain holy sites, Mount Śatruñjaya, in the present state of Gujarat. The commentary, mostly in Sanskrit, glosses the verse text and amplifies it with stories.
The boundaries between one type of text and another are often difficult to define precisely. The account of King Kumārapāla’s conversion, for example, includes stories familiar from many of the didactic collections. The spiritual autobiography, the Upamitibhavaprapañcakathā, owes much to the delightful stories in the Kuvalayamālā. Many of the individual stories I have translated here exist in many different versions and no doubt have their own complex histories; some are clearly much older than the texts from which I have taken them. We know little about the process of transmission of Jain stories, although we do know that stories were often a favoured vehicle for preaching. A story is told of a monk who comes to a village and is denied access to the monastic library by rival monks; needing material for his sermon, he simply writes his own collection of didactic stories! We know that other story collections were written down by monks for wealthy lay patrons. Often these collections gather together stories that seem to have constituted a shared cultural resource; so many of the stories appear again and again in different texts. But there are also exceptions, which seem to be original creations. Some stories clearly bear the stamp of oral transmission, and one story, ‘The Sweetmeat Eater’, even includes instructions to the storyteller to improvise and add his own verses at certain places in the story. Other texts are carefully crafted, refined literary works that demonstrate a familiarity with Sanskrit courtly aesthetics. If this sheer variety of texts and stories makes it difficult to generalize, it also stands as the most sure and reliable witness to the strength and vitality of medieval Jain story literature.
Texts and their dates
Avacūri to the Nandīsutta, ed. Ācārya Vikramasūri and Śrībhāskaravijaya, Śreṣṭhi Devacanda Lālabhāi Jaina Pustakoddhamra, No. 107, Sūrat, 1969.
Brhatkathākośa of Hariṣeṇa (931-932 C.E.), edited A.N. Upadhye, Bombay: Singhi Jain Series, Vol. 17, 1943.
Dharmābhyudayamahākāvya of Udayaprabhasūri (1233 C.E), edited Muni Chaturavijayaji, Bombay: Singhi Jain Series, Vol.4, 1949.
Kathākosā of Prabhācandra (10th c. C.E.), edited A.N. Upadhye, Manikachandra D. Jaina Granthamala No. 55, Varanasi: Bharatiya Jnana Pitha, 1974.
Kumārapālapratibodha of Somaprabhasūri (1195 C.E.), edited Jina Vijaya Muni, Baroda: Gaekwad’s Oriental Series, 1920.
Kuvalayamālākathā of Ratnaprabhasūri (13th c. C.E.), edited A.N. Upadhye, Bombay: Singhi Jain Series, 46, 1970.
Mūlaśuddhiprakaraṇa with commentary of Devacandrasūri (1089-1090 CE), edited Amritlal Mohanlal Bhojak, Ahmedabad: Prakrit Text Society, 1971.
Padmapurāna of Raviseṇa (678 C.E.), edited Pannalal Jain, Kashi: Bharatiya Jnana Pitha, 1958.
Pariśiṣṭaparvan of Hemacandra (12th c. C.E.), edited Hermann Jacobi, Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1932.
Prabandhakośa of Rājaśekharasūri (1349 C.E.), edited Jina Vijaya Muni, Santiniketan: Singhi Jain Series, Vol. 6, 1935
Śatruñjayakalpa of Dharmaghosa (15th c. C.E.), edited Labhasagaragani, Ahmedabad: Agamodhara Granthamala No. 41, 1969.
Upamitibhavaprapañcakathā of Siddharsi (906 C.E), edited Hermann Jacobi, Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1899.
Vividhatītrthakalpa of Jinaprabhasūri, (1333 C.E.), edited Jina Vijaya Muni, Santiniketan: Singhi Jain Series, Vol. 10, 1934.
Some of these translations appeared elsewhere:
The stories of Bhadrabāhu and Varāha, Āryanandila, Jīvadeva, Madanakīrti, Ambikā, Devadhara, Devadiṇṇa are taken from The Clever Adultress and Other Stories: A Treasury of Jain Literature, edited by Phyllis Granoff, Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic Press, 1990.
The stories of Maheśavaradatta and Kuberadatta and Kuberadattā are taken from ‘Life as Ritual Process: Remembrance of Past Births in Jain Religious Narratives’ by Phyllis Granoff, in Other Selves: Autobiography and Biography in Cross-Cultural Perspective, edited by Phyllis Granoff and Koichi Shinohara, Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic Press, 1994.
The story of Sanatkumāra is included in an article on cures and karma entitled ‘Self, Soul and Body in Religious Experience’ that will appear in a special issue of Numen, edited by Albert Baumgarten.
I thank David Shulman, Wendy Doniger, Paul Dundas and Luitgard and Jayandra Soni for their help and encouragement as I struggled to write this book.
1
ĀRDRAKUMĀRA
There is in the middle of the continent of Jambuddīpa a beautiful country filled with hundreds of wondrous things and bustling with happy people. This country, called Magahā, has been made pure by the touch of the footsteps of the Jina, who led the religious life that was so difficult to lead, and by his direct disciples. It is rich in crops and money. Now in this country may be found the city Rāyagiha, the abode of all the excellent qualities that a city can possess, a lovely ornament for the forehead of the Lady Earth. The city Rāyagiha is known far and wide in all the ten directions.
It is like the garden of the gods, its lofty palaces like the garden’s huge
trees; it is like a king’s triumphal gate, if you know how to make a good pun, for the gate has heavy bolts, while the city has many buildings, both expressed by the same words; it is like Mount Meru, for both are places where propitious things may happen; it is like the peak of Mount Kailāsa, where Śiva lives, for in the city dwell rich men, and Śiva and the rich are both called by the same word, ‘lord’; it is like the land of the gods, filled with temples, homes of the gods; it is like the sky, which has constellations while it is adorned with paintings; it is like a big family, for a large family is filled with many relatives while the city is filled with many dwellings, if you can unravel these puns! What more can I say?
It is splendid in its regular layout of grand roadways, crossroads and forks, where three roads or even four might meet; it is beautiful with its shops and drinking stands, gardens, lakes, tanks and wells. King Seniya, a lion who had torn apart his enemies, who are like so many elephants, rules over that city, which is like the city of the gods. And in that city there is no fear from anyone who might do it harm.
And here are yet more puns: the king is like the far-off land of Mahāvideha, which has the mountain peak Vijaya, ‘Victory’, for the king has many victories; he is like lake Mānasa, for the lake is always frequented by royal swans, while the king is ever served by other kings who wait on him; he is like Visnu who carries the discus, while the king supports the right faith; he is like the rising sun, whose orb is red, for around him are a circle of loyal attendants; he is like the god Brahmā, who sits on a lotus, while he is the abode of the Goddess of Fortune; he is like the moon, for both gladden the eyes of everyone who beholds them.
The king has two wives, both soft-spoken and pretty, endowed with knowledge and humility, right belief, courage and virtue. The king loves both these wives, Sunandā and Cellanā, and they in turn are proud of their husband’s love. They are both pious Jain ladies, upholders of the Jain lay vows: they vow never to harm any living creature, always to tell the truth, never to steal, always to be faithful to their husband and not to accumulate too many possessions. They also practice restraint, limiting the places they go so as not to harm living creatures, agreeing not to use certain items and forever giving up vices like gambling.
Now Sunandā has a son, who in the greatness of his intelligence is the equal of Brhaspati, the preceptor of the gods. He is the foremost of the five hundred ministers of the king and is capable of bearing the burden of the great kingdom all by himself. His name is Abhayakumāra. And all of the members of the royal family spend their days enjoying the various pleasures of the senses, acquiring wealth by lawful means, devotedly serving the glorious community of monks and worshipping the glorious Jina, Mahāvīra.
Far away from this land of Magahā, in the midst of the ocean, is a country called Addayadesa, and in that country there is a grand city named Addayaura. King Addaya rules there; many great vassal kings bow down at his feet, setting them asparkle with the rays that bounce from the jewels of their crowns. His queen, named Addayā, surpasses the lovely women of the gods in her many virtues and great beauty. She has a son named Prince Addaya, who is like an excellent necklace; the necklace has a most wonderful thread, while the son has most excellent qualities, both expressed in the same words. He offers relief to those who are suffering and is the abode of all propitious virtues; he brings comfort to the hearts of many men and women; indeed, his intentions are always honorable and because he is so pure in mind, he has no vice whatsoever. Now this son leads a most pleasurable life as a result of the merits he has accumulated in past births.
Every day King Seniya and King Addaya, out of respect for the friendship established by their ancestors, send each other valuable gifts as a token of their mutual affection. One day an envoy came from Seniya. He was admitted into the presence of the king by the doorkeeper, who announced, ‘Lord! An envoy sent by King Seniya waits at your door!’ At that King Addaya, his hair standing on end for joy, replied, ‘Show him in at once!’ Without further ado the doorkeeper ushered the envoy into the king’s court. The envoy bowed respectfully and sat down on the seat provided for him. He was honored with the usual gifts of betel and other things. King Addaya asked him, ‘Tell us, how is King Seniya and his family?’ The envoy replied, ‘My lord, they are well.’ Then the envoy presented his gifts of fine cloth, blankets, leaves of the nimba plant and salt to the king. When the king saw these things, he said, ‘King Seniya is my best friend; surely I have no other friend like him.’ When Prince Addaya heard his father’s words that were so filled with affection, he asked,’ Father! Who is this King Seniya?’ The king replied, ‘Son! He is the ruler of the land of Magahā, and a king whose rule extends far and wide. Our family has long had this relationship of great affection with those of King Seniya’s lineage. And it is his envoy who has come to us bearing these gifts.’ Prince Addaya turned to the envoy and asked, ‘Does your master have a son who is worthy of him?’ When he heard these words the envoy was delighted and replied,
‘Indeed, he has a fine son, who is endowed with the four types of intelligence, natural cleverness and the others. This son is the master of five hundred ministers, a hero, honest, handsome, of pleasing words, and ever ready to speak. He is clever and grateful to those who help him; he has mastered many texts and sciences and is skilled in the many arts. This young man is endowed with wisdom, humility and a sense of modesty; he is possessed of virtuous conduct and compassion and gives liberally to those in need. He is extremely good-looking and of fine build; he follows the will of his subjects, is steadfast and adorned with auspicious marks. He is unwavering in his faith in Jainism and is ever vigilant in pursuing the duties of a lay Jain. He is like a bee, ever hovering around the lotus feet of the lord of Jinas, Mahāvīra. He is devoted to the excellent monks and is ever eager to do what is necessary for those who share his religious faith, for his subjects, and for those who bow down to him in respect or need. What more can I say? This son of King Seniya is honored even by the gods, who think him to be a man of great virtue. And the name of this most excellent prince is Abhaya. It is because of Abhaya’s great prowess that Seniya is able to pursue his life of pleasures without any worries. O Prince! Everyone in the world has heard of Abhaya; how can you not have heard of him?’
When he heard these words, Prince Addaya cried out in joy, ‘Father, if you allow it, then I would like to become friends with Abhaya.’ The king replied, ‘Son! It is only fitting that we perpetuate the mutual affection between our families that has existed throughout the generations. For they say:
The affection of a good person is like an elderly man. Both start slowly and hesitantly; the one walks carefully behind you leaning on a bamboo stick, while the other is passed on down the family, never lessening (and here is a pun that you must catch, on the words “bamboo” and “family”!) Neither falters, and while the old man grows older, the affection of an honest man grows deeper.
Fortunate indeed are those good men whose affection is constant and daily grows, to be passed on to their sons like some long accumulated debt.’
At this, Prince Addaya said to the envoy, ‘When my father gives you leave to go, please come and see me.’ The envoy agreed. King Addaya’s men escorted the envoy to a lofty mansion where he was to stay. King Addaya presented the envoy with gifts of gemstones, pearls, coral and the finest silks. The next day the king again honored the envoy with presents of clothes and jewellery and dispatched some of his chief retainers, likewise laden with rich gifts, to accompany the envoy on his journey home. After this royal send-off, the envoy hastened as promised to the dwelling of the prince. He explained to the prince that the king had formally dismissed him. The prince, too, presented the envoy with gifts of large pearls and glittering gemstones, among other things, and said, ‘You must give Prince Abhaya this message from me. Tell him, ‘Prince Addaya desires to form a friendship with you.” With these words Prince Addaya dismissed the envoy.
The envoy returned to Rāyagiha, travelling without a stop and encou
ntering no obstacles. The doorkeeper announced the return of the envoy to King Seniya; he ushered him into the presence of the king. Having bowed respectfully to his sovereign, the envoy sat down. The retainers of King Addaya, who had accompanied the envoy home, presented King Seniya with the gifts that they had brought. They also gave Prince Abhaya the gifts that Prince Addaya had sent. When King Seniya and the others who were present beheld those gifts, they were greatly astonished and exclaimed, ‘How marvellous are these gifts!’ The envoy then repeated to Prince Abhaya what Prince Addaya had said. Now Prince Abhaya knew well the words of the Jina and he was pure in mind, and so he thought:
The Forest of Thieves and the Magic Garden: An Anthology of Medieval Jain Stories (Penguin Classics) Page 3
