by Bobby Akart
Nathanael Greene used a guerrilla strategy very effectively against Lord Cornwallis. First, Nathanael Greene would keep retreating to lure the British far from their supply lines, then send out his forces to fight in small skirmishes and engagements with British detachments to weaken them. Then fighting the conventional battle, Nathanael Greene fought Lord Cornwallis at Guilford Court House and gave him a severe blow. Although Lord Cornwallis was the victor, his victory was pyrrhic as he had too many casualties that he could ill afford. After the British surrender at Yorktown and America gaining their independence, many of these Americans who used guerrilla tactics and strategies became immortalized and romanticized as time passed.
Although guerrilla warfare was frequently used when avoiding battles, the Americans fought in conventional linear formations in decisive battles against the British. The American Revolution could be seen as a hybrid war since both conventional and guerrilla warfare were used throughout its duration.
Origins of Counterinsurgency in Assyria and Rome 1100 BC to AD 212
As we’ve written in Economic Collapse, all empires collapse eventually. Their reign ends when they are defeated by a larger and more powerful enemy, or when their financing runs out. In the case of the Roman Empire, all of the above applies.
Most ancient empires responded to the threat of guerrilla warfare, whether waged by nomads from the outside or rebels from the inside, with the same strategy. It can be boiled down to one simple word—terror.
Ancient monarchs sought to inflict as much suffering as possible to put down and deter armed challenges. Since, with a few exceptions such as Athens and the Roman Republic, ancient nations were primarily monarchies or warrior states, rather than constitutional republics. They seldom felt bound by any moral scruples or by any need to appease public opinion—neither public opinion nor human rights being concepts that they would have understood.
The Assyrians, who starting in 1100 BC conquered a domain stretching a thousand miles from Persia to Egypt, were particularly grisly in their infliction of terror. The Mongols would later become famous for equally grotesque displays designed to frighten adversaries into acquiescence.
But even at a time when there were no human-rights lobbies and no free press, this strategy was far from successful. Often it backfired by simply creating more enemies. Wracked by civil war, Assyria was helpless in the end to suppress a revolt by the Babylonians, inhabitants of a city previously sacked by the Assyrians, and the Medes, a tribe dwelling in modern-day Iran. They pooled their resources to fight their larger, mutual oppressors. In 612 BC the two enemies came together and managed to conquer the imperial capital of Assyria through insurgent warfare.
The Roman Empire, which faced and suppressed more rebellions than most of its predecessors or successors, developed a more sophisticated approach to counterinsurgency. But then it had to, because it faced more sophisticated insurgents—not just the type of primitive nomads that confronted then, but also rebellions led by men who had previously fought with the Romans or lived among them and knew how to exploit their weaknesses.
Many were originally barbarians who were Romanized to some degree, typically through military service. Yet, being foreign born, they were usually not able to share in the full fruits of Roman citizenship. This hardship was especially severe in the case of Spartacus, a slave from the Balkans who escaped from a gladiator training school and eventually led an army of ninety thousand freed slaves who briefly overran much of southern Italy.
Not only Spartacus, but many other semi-Romanized barbarians built up a lifetime’s worth of perceived slights and grudges. They also sympathized with the plight of their native countrymen, who were often exploited by Roman overlords. The resulting tensions exploded in some of the worst revolts that Rome faced. Entire legions would be lost in the resulting wars. The Romans came back to conquer after many defeats, but the losses took a toll spiritually, and economically.
In response to insurrections, the Romans became just as savage and bloodthirsty as the Mongols or Assyrians. Witness the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC or of Jerusalem in AD 70 and again in 135. The Greek historian Polybius noted that in towns taken by the legions “one may often see not only the corpses of human beings, but dogs cut in half, and the dismembered limbs of other animals. . . . They do this, I think, to inspire terror.”
To deter would-be rebels, the Romans spread news of their merciless conquests far and wide. After the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70, for example, new coins were minted all over the empire with the legend “Judaea Conquered,” showing “a Roman soldier with a spear standing over a mourning Jew.” As a result, Roman counterinsurgency warfare has understandably, if unfairly, come to be associated with the famous words: “They create a desert, and call it peace.”
In addition to targeted assassinations employed in the latter periods of the Roman Empire, the Romans also employed psychological warfare. Those who praise the Romans for their ferocity in putting down revolts should realize that this was only part of the story. Rome’s enemies were not always slain. Often they were accommodated. A succession of emperors maintained stability on the frontiers by reaching understandings with barbarian tribes—who consistently aggravated Rome with its insurgent activity, who were often bribed with favorable trade and what would now be called foreign aid. Neighboring kings became Roman clients, and many of their followers were paid to defend the empire or at least not to attack it. The Romans, like most successful imperialists, were skilled at exploiting political divisions among their enemies and using gold as a weapon.
If the Roman Empire had offered nothing but death and desolation to those it ruled, it could never have survived as long as it did: Rome ruled most of western Europe, the Balkans, Anatolia, and northern Africa for 450 years. The secret to the empire’s longevity was that while the Romans punished revolts harshly, they generally ruled with a light touch.
Indeed, some historians argue that Rome was, like modern America, an empire of trust that was built and maintained with the implicit consent of its subjects. Another scholar suggests that Roman imperialism was primarily a diplomatic and even social phenomenon, not only or mainly a military undertaking. The Roman Senate even occasionally punished its own soldiers and envoys for dealing too treacherously or cruelly with subject peoples. As well it should have: the Roman legions could barely have functioned without the manpower and supplies provided by vanquished foes converted into slaves or unwilling allies.
The Roman version of counter-insurgency evolved from terror to a pacification over a period of several centuries. These transformations resulted in Pax Romana, which is Latin for Roman Peace. Pax Romana was the long period of relative peacefulness and minimal expansion by the Roman military force experienced by the Roman Empire after the end of the Final War of the Roman Republic and before the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century.
The Crisis of the Third Century (AD 235–284) was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression.
Is there a lesson to be learned here for the governing of a nation-state? Can a nation’s foreign policy, when faced with the threat of guerrilla warfare and insurgent uprisings, become too soft in its response? Time will tell.
To return to Chapter One of The Mechanics, book five in The Boston Brahmin series, click here:
RETURN TO CHAPTER ONE
APPENDIX C
POSTED:
DECLARATION OF MARTIAL LAW
This is Executive Order 13777. Dated September 7, 2016, entitled DECLARATION OF MARTIAL LAW.
“By the authority vested in me as President by the Constitution and the laws of the United States of America, including the Defense Production Act of 1950, as amended; Executive Order 13603 entered into the Federal Register on March 22, 2012; and in furtherance of National Security and Homeland Security Presidential Directive 51, herein Directive 51, signed by President George W. Bush on May 4, 2007; and in my capacity as
Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces of the United States, it is hereby ordered as follows:
“PART I: PURPOSE, POLICY, AND IMPLEMENTATION
“Section 101. Purpose. This Executive Order 13777 incorporates all prior Executive Orders and Presidential Policy Directives that have been established to promulgate the decisions of the President on national and domestic security matters. This Executive Order 13777 establishes a comprehensive national policy on the continuity of the Federal Government. Through the establishment of ten regional Governor’s offices, the Executive Branch will name a National Continuity Coordinator responsible for coordinating the development and implementation of Federal policies to ensure Continuity of Government and the ability to provide the citizens of America certain National Essential Functions, as prescribed from time to time by the President.
“Section 102. Policy. It is the policy of the United States to maintain a comprehensive and effective continuity capability composed of Continuity of Operations and Continuity of Government programs in order to ensure the preservation of our form of government under the Constitution and the continuing performance of National Essential Functions under all conditions. In addition, it is the duty of the United States to protect and serve our citizens. This Executive Order 13777 declares the United States to be in a state of Catastrophic Emergency, as that term is defined in Directive 51. A Catastrophic Emergency means any incident, regardless of location, that results in extraordinary levels of mass casualties, damage, or disruption severely affecting the United States population, infrastructure, environment, economy, or government functions. The authorities created in this Executive Order shall be used to strengthen our national defense preparedness, and to assist further federal, state, and local law enforcement during this Catastrophic Emergency.
“Section 103. General Functions and Implementation. All executive departments, agencies, and the newly constituted Council of Governor’s offices responsible for plans and programs relating to national defense and domestic policing, shall:
(a) Assist in identifying the full spectrum of emergencies facing the Continuity of Operations, including all threats, foreign or domestic;
(b) Assess and report any individual or group of individuals who are actively opposing the provisions of this Executive Order;
(c) Be prepared, in the event of a potential threat to the Continuity of Government or the security of the United States, to take all actions deemed necessary and appropriate to ensure National Essential Functions.
“Section 104. Implementation. The Office of the President, in association with the cooperation of the National Security Council, and the Department of Homeland Security, and pursuant to Executive Order 13528 entered in the Federal Register on January 11, 2010, as amended and superseded herein, hereby establishes ten Regional Offices of the Council of Governors. The Council of Governors will be maintained in the existing regional offices of the Federal Emergency Management Agency and will be tasked with coordinating the efforts of the National Guard, the Citizens Corps, homeland defense, and the integration of State and Federal military activities within the United States. The Governors will be appointed by the Office of the President based upon merit, and without consideration of political party affiliation. These duly appointed Governors will report directly to, and serve at the pleasure of, the Office of the President.
“PART II: SPECIFIC PROVISIONS
“Section 201. Generally. In order to maintain security and order, and provide essential services to the citizens of America, curfews will be established, and until further notice, there will be a suspension of certain provisions of the United States Constitution, including, but not limited to, civil law, civil rights, habeas corpus, and such other and general provisions as may be determined in the national interest by the Office of the President. Specifically, but without limitation, the following restrictions and suspensions are effective immediately—all determined to be in the best interests of the nation, and the safety, health, and general welfare of its citizens:
(a) The First Amendment right of free speech and the press are hereby restricted to the extent such speech or written word is deemed intended to incite a riot or hostilities against the United States. The right of assembly is hereby limited to not more than ten persons, in public or private. Specifically excepted from this provision is the right to freedom of religion in a designated house of worship for so long as such religious gathering is properly permitted by the Council of Governors, and monitored by its designated agent;
(b) The Second Amendment right to bear arms is suspended. All weapons, magazines, ammunition, and related accessories are hereby declared unlawful and shall be voluntarily, or forcibly, surrendered to law enforcement designated by the Council of Governors;
(c) The Third Amendment restriction of quartering soldiers in private homes is suspended. In order to assure an Enduring Constitutional Government, the nation’s military personnel, members of law enforcement, and appropriately designated members of the Citizen Corps, will have the full force and effect of a soldier within the meaning of the Constitution. Housing for these specially appointed citizens will take priority over all others. Those citizens displaced from their homes will be provided suitable housing at the discretion of the Council of Governors, or its designees;
(d) The Fourth Amendment right against unreasonable searches and seizures is hereby suspended. No citizen shall hinder or prevent any action or process in furtherance of the duties of those appointed by the Office of the President or the Council of Governors;
(e) The Fifth Amendment right to due process is suspended. All persons subject to appearance before the state and federal courts of the United States will now fall under the purview of the Military Tribunals of the United States;
(f) The Sixth Amendment right to a speedy trial is suspended as being an undue burden upon the Military Tribunals of the United States. The right to trial by jury, to be informed of the criminal charges against the person, the right to compel and confront witnesses, and to the assistance of counsel is not suspended. However, the Military Tribunals of the United States may delay the prosecution of individuals based upon the accused’s insistence upon exercising these rights, and all defendants shall be so informed;
(g) The Seventh Amendment right to civil trials by jury is suspended;
(h) The Eighth Amendment forbidding the imposition of excessive bails or fines is suspended. Specifically, the right to bail is suspended;
(i) The Ninth Amendment clarifies that the specific individual rights not enumerated in the Constitution, such as the right to privacy, are given full force and effect as law. These rights may be suspended as deemed necessary by, and in the sole discretion of, the Office of the President and the Council of Governors, in the best interests of the nation, and the safety, health, and general welfare of its citizens;
(j) The Tenth Amendment is suspended. By the execution of this Executive Order 13777, all matters of governing shall reside within the Office of the President, the Council of Governors, or their designees.
“PART III: GENERAL PROVISIONS and PENALTIES
“Section 301. Continuity Annexes. The directives and the information contained herein shall be protected from unauthorized disclosure and alteration. The Continuity Annexes attached hereto are hereby incorporated herein and made a part of this Executive Order 13777 by reference. The Continuity Annexes are hereby designated Classified and shall be accorded appropriate handling, consistent with prior applicable Executive Orders.
“Section 302. Force and Effect. This Executive Order 13777 shall be implemented in a manner that is consistent with, and facilitates effective implementation of, provisions of the Constitution concerning the exercise of the powers of the Office of the Presidency, with the consultation of the Vice President, the Council of Governors and, as appropriate, their designees. Heads of local, state, and federal agencies shall be prepared at all times to implement the directives issued by the Office of the Presidency deemed necessary and app
ropriate for the health, safety, and welfare of American citizens and interests.
“Section 303. Further Directives. The Council of Governors, upon the direction of the Office of the President, is hereby authorized and empowered to issue such further regulations as they may deem necessary to carry out the purposes of this Executive Order 13777 and to issue licenses hereunder, through such officers or agencies as they may designate from time to time.
“Section 304. Penalties for Violations. Whoever willfully violates any provision of this Executive Order 13777, or any rule, regulation, or license issued thereunder, will be subject to imprisonment and asset forfeiture as deemed appropriate by the Military Tribunals of the United States. In addition, any person who, owing allegiance to the United States, or otherwise, levies war against the United States, or adheres to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort, is guilty of treason. Such person shall be brought before the Military Tribunal of the United States, and if found guilty of treason against the United States, shall suffer the penalty of death.
“Signed under hand and seal by the President of the United States on this seventh day of September 2016.”
Return to the Table of Contents of The Mechanics,
book five in The Boston Brahmin series
Dramatis Personae
THE LOYAL NINE:
Sarge – born Henry Winthrop Sargent IV. Son of former Massachusetts governor, godson of John Adams Morgan and a descendant of Daniel Sargent, Sr., wealthy merchant, and owner of Sargent’s Wharf during the Revolutionary War. He’s a tenured professor at the Harvard Kennedy School of Government in Cambridge. He is becoming well known around the country for his libertarian philosophy as espoused in his New York Times bestseller—Choose Freedom or Capitulation: America’s Sovereignty Crisis. Sarge resides at 100 Beacon Street in the Back Bay area of Boston. Sarge is romantically involved with Julia Hawthorne.
