50 Weapons That Changed Warfare

by William Weir

  And the basic personal weapon of soldiers all over the world is now the assault rifle.

  Chapter 39

  Hidden Death: Land Mines

  National Archives from U.S. Information Agency

  American lieutenant, wounded by a Viet Cong land mine, is treated by a medic.

  Land mines have been around for a long time, and it’s only in the last few years that they have aroused public concern. A few land mines were used in the American Civil War, although they seem to have been mostly improvised devices — usually an artillery shell with a percussion cap arrangement where the time fuse would have gone. The public took a dim view of these “land torpedoes,” calling them, as they did submarines, “infernal devices.” The Turks used land mines on the beaches at Gallipoli, but they were not common on most of the major battle fronts. Barbed wire and the machine guns provided a pretty complete defensive system. Land mines would just have complicated things when it was time to advance.

  It was the appearance of the tank that caused a quantum jump in land mine warfare. The Achilles’ heel of the lumbering monsters was their caterpillar treads.

  A small amount of explosive could break a tread, leaving the tank immobile and almost helpless — certainly useless as a breakthrough weapon. Early land mines were do-it-yourself propositions, improvised from artillery shells or bulk explosives. Later, government-issue mines appeared, but, by that time, the war was almost over.

  When the Second World War began, all belligerents had factory-made land mines. Some were antitank mines; some were antipersonnel mines. Antipersonnel mines were even simpler than antitank mines: it takes very little high explosive to blow a man’s foot off. Most of the early mines had metal bodies. To locate them, members of antitank and mine platoons would sweep the ground with electronic metal detectors — ancestors of the gadgets hobbyists used to find coins in public parks and on beaches. The armies then switched to non-metallic mines.

  The Germans had a nasty little number the GIs called a “shoe mine.” It was a wooden box the size of a shoe box with a loose lid. Any pressure on the lid ignited a percussion cap, which exploded a charge of TNT. The foot that stepped on the shoe mine never needed a shoe again — if its owner survived. The United States used a similar device, a small round plastic case that exploded if any pressure was put on its top. To locate these non-metallic mines, the infantry had to use their bayonets. They probed the ground ahead of them as they walked.

  The British even had a purpose-built bayonet probe — one of their cheap “spike” bayonets welded to a length of pipe.

  The antitank mines needed far more pressure to make them explode. Men could walk across a field of antitank mines with complete safety, but any tanks attempting to follow them would be in serious trouble. Some mines, especially antitank mines, had two devices for setting them off. A plate on top would explode the mine if pressure were placed on it. Another device on the bottom would also explode the mine if it were lifted up and pressure removed from the bottom element.

  One type of antipersonnel mine, the “claymore,” was not buried, but placed above the surface, usually hidden by brush or high grass. It was used a lot in Vietnam. The claymore was a curved plastic case holding a slab of high explosive behind hundreds of steel ball bearings. When it exploded, it threw the ball bearings in a 60-degree arc to a range of 270 yards. It could be ignited by a trip wire or electricity.

  Another antipersonnel mine using ball bearings was the “bouncing betty.”

  When an enemy hit a trip wire, it would explode a small powder charge in the base of the mine. The mine would fly up, but it was attached to a wire anchored to the ground. When the mine reached waist height, the wire released a firing pin and the mine exploded and scattered ball bearings in all directions.

  One thing few citizens who have not been in combat know is that armies frequently marked their minefields with wire and warning signs. Trying to find their way around a minefield could delay enemies almost as much as trying to cross it, and it could channel them into areas that have already been zeroed in on by the defenders’s guns. It also helps avoid the chance of being blown up by your own mines. And, it greatly reduces the chance of civilians being killed by mines long after the fighting is over.

  That’s why one of the new methods of laying mines is particularly nasty.

  Helicopters now can scatter both antitank and antipersonnel mines over a wide area. A single Black Hawk helicopter can place 960 mines. Unless the mines are the self-destructing type, one may lie on the ground for years until someone, maybe a child, sets it off. Finding and collecting such randomly scattered mines in unmarked minefields after a war is a herculean task.

  Cluster bombs, delivered by airplanes, helicopters, artillery shells, or rockets cause a similar problem. At a predetermined height, the bomb, shell, or rocket opens and scatters scores of bomblets, each less than four inches long and an inch-a-half in diameter, over an area known to contain enemy troops.

  The bomblets trail streamers that unscrew their arming devices. The problem is that these tiny bombs, each with the power of a hand grenade, may not explode when they strike, because the arming device may not have been fully unscrewed.

  If a curious child should pick up a bomblet, it might go off.

  Antitank mines were one of the main means of taking the Blitz out of Blitzkrieg, and they were so successful they stimulated the use of antipersonnel mines. At one time, mines were individually dug in. Now, the work is often done with machinery. Even in marked minefields, the chances are that the weapons have been plowed in with a mechanical minelayer.

  Clearing mines is also often done without hand work. One Russian general is reported to have sent his troops right across an undefended German minefield to save time. His reasoning: He wouldn’t have lost any more men than if the area were defended by artillery. On D day in Normandy, the Allies used tanks pushing heavy rollers or cylinder that flailed the ground with chains to set off antitank mines ahead of them. That worked until the Germans began planting mines with delayed action fuses. Artillery and mortar barrages were a good way to eliminate minefields. So were “Bangalore torpedoes” — long pipes filled with explosives that were pushed over the minefields and exploded. A modern version of the “torpedo” used a rocket to pull an explosive filled hose across the minefield. The newest way to clear minefields is to use fuel-air explosives. The United States has a bomb containing three smaller bombs, each containing 71.8 pounds of ethylene oxide. The bomblets are ejected from the big bomb and arrive by parachute, open, and the gas vaporizes, forming a cloud about 50 feet in diameter and eight feet high. Then it detonates, exploding all the mines beneath it. Deep penetration bombs filled with ethylene oxide can also be used to fill underground fortifications, like those in Afghanistan with explosive vapor.

  In the last half of the Korean War, the trench-and-bunker warfare environment resulted in all kinds of homemade mines. The Husch flare, named after the lieutenant who invented it, used by the 27th Infantry Regiment, was typical.

  It was a diesel oil drum buried in the mountainside and slanted toward North Korean lines. At the bottom of the drum was a half-pound block of TNT, a blasting cap and a firing pin. Leading from that were trip wires going in many directions. The drum was then filled with napalm and many hand grenades. The flare would not only cause great harm to anyone trying to sneak through the barbed wire at night, it would show the troops where the enemy soldiers were and illuminate the targets.

  Today, a kind of mine called a roadside bomb is one of the principal weapons of the Iraqi guerrillas. Because of the huge number of artillery shells, bombs, and rockets apparently lying around everywhere in Iraq, making the bomb is simplicity itself. Get one or many shells, bombs, and so on, wire them together and set them off with a small charge of TNT or some other explosive. A favorite method of ignition involves a mobile telephone. Dial the phone’s number and, instead of ringing, it sets off the bomb. The bomb doesn’t have to be dug in, something that mi
ght attract attention on a paved road. Just hide it in a trash can, a wrecked vehicle, or the body of a dead animal — a dog, a donkey, or maybe a camel. A big bomb doesn’t have to explode under a vehicle. A really big one can take out several vehicles in the area. You’ll find more on this in Chapter 50 (on improvised weapons).

  Chapter 40

  Less Is More — A Lot More: The Shaped Charge

  Bazooka shell. Little rockets like this let one infantryman knock out a tank weighing many tons.

  Back in 1883, an American engineer named Monroe exploded a slab of explosive against a steel plate. The explosive had letters impressed on it showing that it was the property of the U.S. Navy. After the explosion, Monroe was amazed to find that the impressions on the explosive had been reproduced on the plate. He published a paper describing the phenomenon, then everybody forgot about it. There were much easier ways to engrave inscriptions on steel plates.

  Actually, Monroe didn’t discover the effect named after him. The earliest reference to the fact that a depression in an explosive concentrates its force goes back to 1792. Further, there are indications that mining engineers had been using this phenomenon for 150 years without telling anybody about it. But the scientific community put the “Monroe effect” in the space reserved for useless knowledge and went on about its business. Von Neumann rediscovered the effect in 1911, but there still seemed to be no practical use for it.

  In 1935, a Swiss chemical engineer, Henry Mohaupt, was on duty as a machine gunner in the Swiss Army. All men in Switzerland serve in the armed forces, take periodic military training and are active reservists until age 45. The tensions that would culminate in World War II were building up, and Mohaupt was disturbed at the ineffectiveness of antitank weapons available to the infantry. Switzerland, for example, was relying on the Solothurn antitank rifle — a semiautomatic 20 mm weapon that would have made hash of the tanks of World War I, but would not even dent such vehicles as Germany’s Pzkw IV medium tank. When his active duty term was up, Mohaupt established a laboratory to develop an antitank weapon for the infantry soldier. He took the Monroe effect as a starting point. At first, he used hollowed-out explosive charges to propel metal disks against a steel target. That led him to line the hole in the explosive with a metal cone. That, he learned, multiplied the penetration of the steel — especially if he moved the charge back from the target for a short distance. At the optimum distance, the shaped explosive charge would drill a small hole in the steel about seven and a half times deeper than the diameter of the cone.

  Through that hole, a stream of fire and molten metal would cause horrible damage to people and machinery.

  Mohaupt, knowing that Hitler was a threat to all of Europe, demonstrated his discovery to French and British military authorities. The French, in turn, passed on the information to the United States. U.S. Government officials invited Mohaupt to come to the United States after the invasion of France and the Low Countries on May 10, 1940. He finally got to the United States in October 1940, after delays caused by other U.S. Government officials because he was not an American citizen. He then took over direction of the “bazooka project” — the attempt to develop a handheld rocket that could penetrate tank armor. Britain was working on a similar weapon, the PIAT (for Projector Infantry Anti-Tank) — a strange-looking weapon that used an immensely heavy main spring to power a massive firing pin that ignited a small powder charge to toss a large shell with a shaped-charge filling at enemy tanks. The firing pin and its main spring absorbed most of the recoil, and the recoil cocked the main spring for another shot. Even so, the PIAT kicked like a blue-nosed mule and was even more unpleasant to fire than the.55 caliber Boys antitank rifle — the second least-popular weapon in the British Army. The bazooka, unlike the two British weapons, would have no recoil at all.

  The U.S. Army Ordnance Department was skeptical about the whole idea of penetrating armor with an explosion, but the bazooka proved to be a success.

  In June 1941, the government labeled the bazooka Secret. Thereafter, its inventor, Mohaupt was excluded from the project because he wasn’t an American citizen. That same month, Mohaupt had filed for a patent on his application of the Monroe effect. (He had previously patented it in Europe.) Because he was a Swiss, not an American, citizen, the Justice Department pursued him for violation of the War Secrets Act. Fortunately, someone with common sense in the government called off the Justice Department. Mohaupt then joined the U.S. Army and was assigned to the bazooka project. He perfected the weapon, which was introduced to the Germans in North Africa in 1943.

  For the first time, the individual infantryman had a weapon that would reliably stop a tank. When tank armor got thicker, bazookas got bigger. In the Korean War, the 3.5-inch “super bazooka” made short work of the North Koreans’ Russian-built T 34 tanks, which had defied not only older bazookas but also high explosive shells from the 105 mm howitzer.

  The bazooka’s shaped charge became the heart of a huge variety of antitank weapons. Most field artillery guns now use shaped charge shells, known as HEAT (for High Explosive Anti-Tank). All antitank rockets do, too. So do recoilless guns. Some of them use special ammunition that does not require the charge to spin. Spinning, the result of rifling, decreases the penetration of a shaped charge.

  There’s more on that in Chapter 41.

  The Germans adopted a very unusual recoilless gun that used a shaped charge shell. Called a Panzerfaust, it looked like nothing more than a length of pipe. Its shell looked like a trench mortar shell with a long tail. The tail contained its propelling charge. Some of the gas generated by the propelling charge pushed the shell forward, the rest exited through a venturi at the rear of the gun. Gas leaving the venturi blasted out at extremely high velocity — high enough to balance the effect of the low velocity shell leaving the front of the gun. Recoil momentum equals mass times the velocity of what is shot from the muzzle, divided by the inert weight of the gun. The gas had little mass but lots of velocity. Ian Hogg, the British artillery expert, has called recoilless guns like the panzerfaust and more conventional guns “Newton’s artillery,” because balanc-ing recoil by escaping gas is based on Isaac Newton’s discovery that every action has an equal reaction.

  The panzerfaust was not the German grunt’s favorite weapon. Firing a big shell from a little gun on your shoulder would make anyone nervous, but it was the panzerfaust’s short range that bothered its users. They had to get close to their targets to use it. Getting close to an enemy tank is not comfortable, and anyone who gets too close could be done in by the explosion of his own shell.

  The panzerfaust was effective, though — effective enough to make the Russians adopt an imitation, a gadget they called the RPG 2. They improved the early model enormously by giving the shell a rocket assist. This improved model, the RPG 7, fires the shell from a recoilless gun, like the German and early Russian models. But when it’s a safe distance from the gunner, a rocket motor takes over and carries the shell to a much greater range. With all rocket weapons, a main concern is arranging things so the gunner does not get incinerated by the backblast of his own rocket. The recoilless gun part of the RPG 7 process takes care of this nicely and allows a much more powerful rocket motor than can be used on a bazooka.

  RPG 7s have been sold and made all over the world. The weapon is as popular as that other Russian product, the AK 47. It’s particularly popular with Iraqi guerrillas. The United States and its partners in Iraq have far more sophisticated and more powerful antitank weapons than the RPG 7, but the guerrillas don’t have any tanks, so our antitank superiority means nothing.

  The panzerfaust was dangerous because its user had to get close to an enemy tank, but it was by no means the worst in that respect. Every belligerent had a version of the antitank hand grenade, most of them using the shaped charge. The Germans had the Panzerwurfmine, a grenade with four canvas fins to keep it flying point-first so the shaped charge would be effective.

  The Soviet Union had the RPG 43, which had a
long streamer that popped out when thrown to keep it head-on. And Japan had the Type 3, which had a tail of hemp fibers to insure that the point struck first. Japan also had the ultimate up-close-and-personal antitank weapon: a large shaped charge on the end of a pole. To use it, the soldier ran up to the tank and rammed the charge into it.

  In Normandy, the Americans and British used another type of antitank grenade, the Gammon grenade, a sort of bag filled with a plastic explosive. The grenade spreads itself out on the tank, covering any angles, before it explodes.

  When the Gammon grenade explodes, it is supposed to detach “scabs” of steel from the inner surface of the armor to kill or wound the tank crew, ignite fuel lines and do other damage. It worked quite well on some of the World War I tanks the Germans used in the defense of Normandy. British and Americans have used artillery shells based on this principle. The British call theirs HESH (for High Explosive Squash Head) shells; the Americans use the less colorful HEP (High Explosive Plastic). HESH and HEP shells are seldom used on tanks now. They are more commonly shot at concrete fortifications.

  The shaped charge, even more than the land mine, took the Blitz out of Blitzkrieg. Tankers have been able to use a number of defenses against it. Dan-gling additional armor plates outside the regular tank armor was an early try.

  That, in effect, moved the charge back from the optimum distance so that full strength of the lethal jet from the exploding charge would not reach the regular armor. The plates, though, added a lot of extra weight and were quickly blown off or askew. Another addition is “reactive armor.” Slabs of explosive are hung on the tank. When a shaped charge explodes, so does the reactive armor. The reactive explosion blocks the effect of the shaped charge. That kind of armor defends against only the first shot. If a second shell hits the tank, there is no more reactive armor to react. And, it has been reported, on some lightly armored vehicles, the reactive explosion crushed the machine that was carrying it. A third, and apparently more effective, defense is laminated armor. This has a layer of ceramic material between layers of armor plate. The ceramic resists the burning effect of the jet of gas and molten metal caused by the shaped-charge explosion. It also dampens the shock waves caused by the explosion of an HEP shell and makes less able to break pieces off the interior of the armor.