by Gil Marks
The British rammed the ship off the coast of Israel and in August forced the passengers to return to France, where they refused to disembark. For the ensuing month, the French authorities refused to force them. The British finally took the ship to Germany and forced the passengers, with tear gas and clubs, to disembark, cramming them into detention camps. The British actions in this incident helped lead on November 29, 1947, to the United Nations voting for the establishment of a Jewish state. The Exodus, however, met a sad ending, towed to Haifa harbor, where it languished before burning in 1952.
Meanwhile, in the early twentieth century, kibbutzim along the shores of the sea of Galilee began planting bananas and several decades later farmers in the coastal plains of Israel followed suit. A mysterious ailment threatened the industry until in 1956 it was discovered to be nematodes, insects that damage plants from the roots. Since 2006, after healthier plants were developed, bananas have been a major crop in Israel and are the top selling fruit in Israel. Today it is responsible for about 20 percent of all the West's bananas.
The fruit is primarily enjoyed fresh, but also in baking or as a crepe filling. Banana breads and cakes first appeared in America in the 1930s and soon became part of Ashkenazic baking. Among Yemenites, banana mashed with honey is a traditional remedy for swollen glands. On Passover, some variations of charoset incorporate bananas.
Barley
Coarsely ground barley grains have been found at excavations of prehistoric campsites throughout much of the Fertile Crescent. Initially, nomads followed the course of the maturing wild barley each spring, gathering as much of the grain as possible. Eventually, people learned to grow the plant and settled along the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and in the Levant to cultivate their annual barley crop, sparking the very nascence of civilization. Barley, possibly a native of the Levant, is arguably the world's most ancient cultivated plant and, for a long time, was the most widely grown one, and the most important food. Before the advent of money, barley or barley products served as the predominant form of currency in both Egypt and Sumer.
Among the reasons for barley's early widespread usage were its high yield potential, its drought and heat tolerance, its remarkable resistance to insect infestation, and its ability to thrive in poor soil. As a result, it could be cultivated even on the edges of a desert and even in times of minor drought. Barley, unlike many grains, can be planted without plowing and, therefore, can be grown on small parcels of land, as well as on property inaccessible to oxen and donkeys, and without the necessity of irrigation. Barley ripens a full month earlier than wheat and other important grains, even when planted simultaneously, furnishing a much needed replacement for supplies depleted during the winter, as well as providing insurance in case that year's vulnerable wheat crop failed. The maturation of to the point of being ripe enough to eat gave rise to the Hebrew word for spring, aviv.
As the Ice Age ended and the Mesolithic period commenced nomads in Asia Minor discovered how to boil wild barley into porridges. When barley gruel was left off the fire for a period wild yeast frequently found their way into the mixture, transforming it into beer. When some barley gruel accidentally dropped into the coals of ancient campfires, the first rudimentary breads emerged from the ashes, proving tastier and more portable than gruel. In the Neolithic age, the very first farmers probably settled down in order to ensure sufficient and consistent amounts of cultivated barley to maintain a stable supply of beer. Also during this time, after someone figured out how to grind grains into flour, barley bread became the most common form of food throughout much of Asia, North Africa, and Europe, a position it retained for many millennia. In biblical times, bread, unless otherwise specified, meant bread made from barley. Ancient bread was nothing like a loaf of modern wheat bread, but rather a scone-like product or a thick pancake. There was little variety in these loaves beyond the occasional addition of a spice, such as coriander or cumin. The dough was generally a simple mixture of barley flour and water, typically divided into small pieces and clapped into thin cakes between the palms of the hands, then baked on a griddle or, in the archaic method, directly on the coals of a fire.
In ancient Israel, there were two cultivated varieties of barley, the two most widely grown plants at that time: two-rowed barley, which was the older form, and six-rowed barley. These two types are observably different: the awns on six-rowed barley are long and come to a point, while the hairs on two-rowed barley are tiny and, from a small distance, imperceptible. The head of six-rowed barley appears fatter and rounded. Two-rowed barley is hulled, while six-rowed barley is sometimes naked—and therefore much easier to thresh and, since the kernels remain intact, capable of being stored for a much longer period. Today, two-rowed barley, generally considered the best type for malting as it contains a higher enzyme content, predominates in Europe and Canada. The six-rowed variety, the coarser of the two but hardier and with a higher protein content, is more widespread in the United States. Today, barley ranks fourth among grains in worldwide production.
Mature barley kernels are enclosed in two inedible protective hulls (the lemma and palea), which in primitive varieties adhere to the seeds even after threshing. Removing the two outer hulls produces hulled barley, also called whole barley, which must be soaked before stewing. Hulled barley, the prevalent type in biblical times, is brownish gray in color and has a chewy texture. Gruels made from it tend to have a somewhat gritty taste due to the outer layers. Rubbing off those layers—the entire hull, the edible aleurone (the thin coating that protects the endosperm), and the endosperm—and, along with them, much of the nutrition, yields pearl barley. Pot barley, also called Scotch barley, is scoured less than pearl barley, leaving part of the endosperm intact.
Barley, mentioned by name thirty-two times in the Pentateuch, was one of the Seven Species with which the land of Israel was praised. The importance of barley in ancient Israel can be seen from an injunction stating that the valuation of a field was to be determined according to the measurement of the barley—not wheat—that could be sown in it. The Omer offering on the second day of Passover consisted of barley flour made from the new crop.
Shortly after the Greek conquest of Israel, wheat— by that time modern bread wheat had reached the area— became the primary grain of the land, and recently arrived rice emerged as a favorite grain. The Romans, in particular, favored wheat and promoted it throughout their domains. Barley provided the diet of the Roman gladiators, who were called hordearii (barley eaters), but Roman citizens preferred wheat, a component of the famous "bread and circuses" that maintained the empire. Barley was thereafter reduced to being poor person's food, going from the staple during the Biblical period to a disparaged, generally avoided substance by the end of the Second Temple period. Hence the statement of Rabban Gamliel in the Talmud that barley was animal fodder.
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, wheat remained the predominant grain in the Arab world, while barley made a comeback in some locales. For the masses of southern Europe, barley served as the primary source of gruel and bread until at least the sixteenth century.
Today, barley is generally overlooked in much of the world as a food and primarily utilized to make beer and whiskey. Sephardim and western Europeans rarely use it in their cooking, while eastern Europeans reserve it for hearty fare, such as winter soups and cholent (Sabbath stew).
(See also Beer, Beleela, Bread, Cholent/Schalet, and Krupnik)
Bar Mitzvah/Bat Mitzvah
In Judaism, a child is not held personally responsible for his or her religious acts until reaching puberty, which is determined to be twelve years and one day for a female and thirteen and one day for a male. This transition is automatic with no ritual required. By the fourteenth century, this change in status was formalized in Germany with a ceremony in which a young man was called up to the reading of the Torah to publicly demonstrate his new role in the community. If the bar mitzvah boy is capable, he reads from the Torah scroll, then recites the haftor
ah (reading from the Prophets); otherwise he only recites the blessing. Afterward, it is customary in many congregations to shower the bar mitzvah with candy, frequently tied in small sacks. Some parents employ a little creativity in preparing for this custom by decorating the bags; they paint black lines on a white bag, then tie strings on the four corners to resemble a tallit (prayer shawl).
The concept of the bar mitzvah (meaning both "son of the commandment" as well as "subject to the law") ceremony eventually spread to other parts of the Ashkenazic community, as well as to various non-European Jewish communities. Today, it is among the most well-known of all Jewish rituals. However, since women historically played no role in the synagogue, a girl's maturation was observed quietly or not at all. Eventually, however, the recognition of the need for religious instruction for females, as well as the value of a ceremony to mark the emergence of their religious obligations, increased. Jacob Ettlinger (1798—1871), a German rabbi, approved such an observance for females in order to combat assimilation. The first record of the term bat mitzvah was in the book Ben Ish Chai (1898) by Joseph Chaim ben Elijah of Baghdad. The actual observance of a bat mitzvah ceremony similar to one for males did not occur until 1922, when Judith Kaplan, the oldest daughter of Reconstructionist founder Mordechai Kaplan, was called to the Torah at the Society for the Advancement for Judaism in New York City. Today, traditionalists who observe a bat mitzvah generally do so after the synagogue service or at home or school, while egalitarian congregations encourage girls to perform the same rituals as boys.
The custom among many Sephardim has been to celebrate a bar or bat mitzvah with a mezze allegre (sweet assortment), a symbolic way of wishing a sweet life. In central Europe, the bar mitzvah was generally held on Saturdays, followed by a buffet and sometimes a banquet. Eastern Europeans, on the other hand, historically downplayed what they considered a minor event, usually holding it on Mondays or Thursdays (two other times when the Torah scroll is publicly read) with little or no fanfare.
However, as the bar mitzvah grew in importance in affluent post—World War II America, the accompanying meal did so as well, all too often turning into an excessive and pretentious affair, stereotyped in popular culture by chopped liver sculptures, exotic dancers, and marching bands. More recently, in place of an elaborate catered affair, an increasing number of parents are using the money to take the immediate family to Israel. Others make a point of establishing a family program of performing traditional acts of kindness, such as visiting the elderly and helping the poor. Some celebrants donate part of their gift money to tzedakah (charity).
Bazargan
Bazargan is a tangy relish consisting of bulgur, onion, tamarind, lemon juice, and parsley.
Origin: Syria
The name of this bulgur relish means "of the bazaar" in Arabic, denoting the commonness of its ingredients in the local market. In the West, of course, many of these items are still quite exotic. Tamarind, an acidic tropical fruit, is available as a sauce or concentrate at stores specializing in Middle Eastern fare. Pomegranate molasses, also found in those stores, is sometimes substituted for the tamarind. Either one gives the bulgur its characteristic sour-sweet flavor. Some cooks like to mix in some chopped nuts or toasted pine nuts and a little fresh mint. Bazargan can be transformed into a salad by adding chopped bell peppers or dried fruit.
Syrians typically feature bazargan, along with several other dips and salads, at a mezze (appetizer assortment) served with pita bread to start an important meal. It is frequently offered for Sabbath lunch alongside poultry or meat.
Syrian Bulgur Relish (Bazargan)
about 2 cups/4 to 6 servings
[PAREVE]
1 cup (6 ounces) fine-grain bulgur
2 cups cold water
Dressing:
3 tablespoons tamarhindi (tamarind sauce), or 2 tablespoons pomegranate molasses
2 tablespoons tomato paste or ½ cup tomato purée
3 tablespoons extra-virgin olive oil
2 tablespoons fresh lemon juice
1 to 2 teaspoons ground cumin
About ½ teaspoon table salt or 1 teaspoon kosher salt
About ¼ teaspoon ground black pepper
¼ to ½ teaspoon cayenne (optional)
½ cup finely chopped walnuts or pistachio nuts
¼ cup chopped fresh flat-leaf parsley
1. Place the bulgur in a bowl, pour in the water, and let stand until tender, about 30 minutes. Drain in a sieve, pressing out any excess water. Transfer the bulgur to a medium bowl.
2. To make the dressing: Whisk together the tamarhindi, tomato paste, and oil. Whisk in the lemon juice, cumin, salt, pepper, and, if using, cayenne. Add the nuts and parsley.
3. Pour the dressing over the bulgur and toss to coat. Cover and refrigerate for at least 2 hours to let the flavors meld. Store in the refrigerator for up to 5 days.
Bazha
Bazha is a walnut sauce.
Origin: Georgia
Arguably no group loves walnuts (nigozee, related to the Hebrew egoz) more than Georgians, who add them to almost any dish. This ardor manifests itself in dozens of satsebeli (sauces), originally adapted from Persian cuisine, which are served with almost everything. The most versatile of these sauces is satsebeli bazha, based on a smooth walnut paste. The name probably derived from the Turkic and Uygur word meaning "market/fair," the place one would acquire its sundry spices. Typical of Georgia, this uncooked sauce is slightly tart, with a hint of wine vinegar and/or pomegranate juice, since sweeteners are not used in savory dishes. Marigold petals or turmeric give it a yellowish hue. The thickness of bazha varies according to the nature of the dish it will be served with: a thicker sauce is used for flavoring pkhali (salads) and a thinner one for topping fish and poultry. The key is allowing the sauce sufficient time to stand for the flavors to meld. Georgian Jews feature bazha on the Sabbath, festivals, and other special occasions.
Georgian Walnut Sauce (Bazha)
about 1 cup
[PAREVE]
1 cup (4 ounces) walnut pieces
1 small onion, chopped
3 to 5 cloves garlic, minced
About ½ teaspoon table salt or 1 teaspoon kosher salt
About ¼ cup red wine vinegar or pomegranate juice
3 to 4 tablespoons chopped fresh cilantro
¼ to 1 teaspoon ground coriander
¼ to ½ teaspoon cayenne or hot paprika
¼ teaspoon ground turmeric or ½ teaspoon ground dried marigold petals
½ teaspoon ground fenugreek or 1 seeded and minced jalapeño chili (optional)
About ¼ cup water
Using a mortar and pestle or in a food processor, grind the walnuts, onion, garlic, and salt into a paste. Stir in the vinegar, cilantro, coriander, cayenne, turmeric, and fenugreek. Add water to make a sauce with the consistency of heavy cream. Let stand at room temperature for at least 1 hour. The sauce thickens as it stands. Cover and refrigerate for up to 3 days.
Beans
The fava bean (pol), along with lentils (adashim), and chickpeas (chamitz), are the only three legumes mentioned in the Bible. Pol were among a number of staples sent to King David when he was hiding from the rebellion of Absalom, while Ezekiel included it in a set of ingredients in a poverty bread before the destruction of Jerusalem. The Talmud expanded the use of pol with the attachment of a denominative to other members of the Fabaceae family once grown for consumption. The term pol itself, however, denotes a specific plant from the genus Vicia, the fava bean.
Most of the beans consumed today, except for soy beans, are members of the genus Phaseolus; they are known as haricot beans and come in more than four thousand varieties (e.g., black, cannellini, cranberry, kidney, marrow, navy, and pinto). Haricot beans originated somewhere in Central or South America. Thousands of years before the arrival of Columbus, they were already being cultivated. The Spanish brought American beans back to Europe and, unlike most other American imports, haricot beans gained immediate acceptance among
sixteenth-century Europeans, who were generally averse to adopting any new foods. In a relatively short time, the American beans supplanted the Old World bean, the fava. Subsequently, in parts of Europe and the Near East, haricot beans have for centuries served as one of the main sources, if not the major source, of protein, effectively complementing the nutrition in grains.
The original haricot beans were used in South America for their seeds, then, more than twenty-two hundred years ago, varieties were developed so that the immature pods along with the seeds could be eaten fresh; these became known as string, snap, or green beans. Although the string has long since been cultivated out of most green beans, the name lingers. Snap refers to the sound made when fresh beans are broken. Today, there are more than five hundred green bean cultivars, differing in size, shape, texture, and color. Green beans are most tender when picked before the seeds can be seen through the pods.
Following his second voyage, Columbus introduced the green bean to Europe in 1493. By the beginning of the seventeenth century, green beans had spread throughout the Mediterranean. The favorite Sephardic way of preparing green beans is in tomato sauce, sometimes with other favorite vegetables, such as spinach and leeks. In Turkey and Greece, they are liberally doused in olive oil. Persians cook them with rice or smother them in yogurt. Arguably, no group loved green beans as much as Georgians, who flavor them in numerous ways.
Much of the world's supply of legumes comes in a dried form. Beans consist of layers of starch granules and require liquid to replace the moisture in the starch lost during drying. Dried beans are commonly used to make a wide variety of salads, spreads, soups, and stews. In many Jewish communities, dried haricot beans were used in Sabbath stews and other traditional dishes. Purportedly, the favorite food of the Baal Shem Tov, Israel ben Eliezer, founder of Chasidism, was black bean soup. Georgians have a penchant for red beans. The longstanding significance of beans to Sephardim may be seen from their Spanish name, judia, which is also the Spanish word for Jewess. White beans became particularly important in the Balkans, where avicas/fijones, a thick bean soup, was once a ubiquitous Friday night entrée and left to simmer overnight, in the manner of a Sabbath stew, for Sabbath lunch.
