Encyclopedia of Jewish Food

by Gil Marks

  Unlike mammals and fish, for which the Bible provided precise anatomical simanim (signs) to determine their kosher status, in regard to fowl, the majority of which are kosher, the text listed the forbidden bird species without any mention of empirical signs. The Sages, however, by observing doves, which could be offered in the Temple, and contrasting them to known nonkosher species, distinguished four characteristics possessed by kosher birds: "Any fowl that ha-dorais [seizes with its claws] are unkosher; all that have an etzbah yetairah [extra toe], zefek [crop], and korkebano neeklaf [peelable gizzard] are kosher."

  It is generally accepted that unfit fowl are birds of prey, but the exact identity of some of the forbidden birds cannot be determined. Therefore, the custom developed, which became the standard Ashkenazic and Sephardic practice, that in order for any fowl to be considered kosher, it must have a mesorah (oral tradition). This means that penguins and cockatoos, which have no mesorah, cannot be part of a kosher meal. To further complicate matters, the presence of a mesorah varies among the various different Jewish communities. Iraqi Jews never had a mesorah for ducks. In the 1960s, a disagreement arose between the Ashkenazic and Sephardic chief rabbis of Israel concerning the status of pheasant, the latter group possessing a mesorah for it. On the other hand, some Ashkenazim lack a mesorah for quail.

  Eventually, other birds, notably geese, ducks, and chickens, were domesticated and fowl correspondingly attained a wider role in the Jewish diet. Among Jews, fowl possessed an additional attribute—while mammals were generally too complicated for most people to ritually slaughter, birds proved sufficiently easy for many individuals to handle themselves. In addition, until the Mishnaic period, when domesticated fowl other than pigeons were initially becoming common in Israel, fowl could be eaten with dairy. However, a rabbinic enactment forbade cooking and eating poultry with dairy as with meat.

  The permissibility of other birds proved particularly important by the late Roman period as the predominant position of pigeons on the Jewish table began to diminish. Other birds, most notably chicken and turkey, gradually supplanted it. Records from the Spanish Inquisition reveal that Sephardim of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ate chicken, pigeon, duck, partridge, peacock, swallow, and thrush. In the Mediterranean and Middle East, poultry, generally more expensive than lamb and beef, was rarely consumed during the week, except among the very wealthy. Birds were regarded as special items, reserved for the holidays and sometimes the Sabbath.

  (See also Chicken, Duck, Egg, Goose, Pigeon, Quail, and Turkey)

  Birkhat Hamazon (Grace after Meals)

  The Bible, in the section of the Seven Species with which the land of Israel is praised, mandates, "And you shall eat, ve'savata [and you shall be satisfied], u'verachta [and you shall acknowledge] the Lord your God for the good land which he has given you." This verse is the source of the obligation to thank and praise God after eating, Birkhat Hamazon ("Benediction of the Sustenance," commonly referred to as Grace after Meals), which serves as the archetype of other berakhot (benedictions) and all Jewish liturgy. In Yiddish, this prayer is known as benschen, ultimately from the Latin benedicere (also the source of the En- glish word benediction) with the suffix en. Similarly, Friday night candle lighting is licht benschen, while a benscher refers to the booklet containing the Grace after Meals.

  According to the prevailing opinion, the Bible directed a benediction only after eating bread made from the two grains included in the Seven Species, wheat and barley. The Sages instituted an abridged version of the Grace after Meals, the Al-ha'Michya (on the sustenance), recited after eating any of the Seven Species. In addition to the benedictions recited after eating, the Sages instituted benedictions to be recited before eating, as well as before all the commandments; these benedictions are attributed to the Anshei Knesset ha-Gadolah (Members of the Great Assembly). Each of these benedictions commences with the same terminology, "Blessed are You, O Eternal our God, Ruler of the Universe, Who..." Before eating any of the Five Species of grain, such as a dish of bulgur wheat or barley, a person recites "borei menay mezonot" (creates the types of grains). Fruit from trees and plain grapes require the generic "borei peri ha-eitz" (creates the fruit of the tree). Vegetables require the blessing "borei peri ha-adamah" (creates the fruit of the earth). Any other food that does not fall into a specific category, such as meat, eggs, and processed foods such as juice, requires the less specific blessing of "shehakol nehyah bidvaro" (that all things came to be by His word). However, both bread and wine, the two most processed biblical foods, have special benedictions. Before drinking wine, one recites the more specific "borei peri ha-gafen" (creates the fruit of the vine). Bread, including matza, calls for the higher form of blessing, which when recited subsumes all other foods at the meal: "ha-motzi lechem min ha-arertz" (brings forth bread from the earth).

  Today, Birkhat Hamazon consists of four benedictions, the first three of much greater antiquity, and various adjuncts. According to tradition, Moses instituted the first benediction while in the wilderness, instructing the Israelites to thank God for their sustenance, and Joshua added a second paragraph after he led the people into the land of Israel.

  The Grace after Meals is generally sung or at least major parts of it are, rendering the prayer easier to remember and elevating it to a more mystical and emotional experience. The most widespread of the contemporary tunes was composed in the 1940s by Cantor Moshe Nathanson (also the author of the words to Hava Nagila).

  Biryani

  Biryani is a baked dish consisting of rice layered with meat, poultry, and/or vegetables.

  Origin: India

  Other names: biriani.

  Biryani derives from the Farsi word biryan (fried/roasted), denoting a Persian dish of raw rice sautéed in fat before cooking, resulting in separate grains with a nutty flavor. Originally, the rice was fried, then parboiled with water, mixed with spices and minced roasted lamb, and steamed in a pan over a fire. This rice was flavored throughout with the meat and spices.

  Biryani spread throughout central and eastern Asia, coming to encompass a variety of rice dishes, many no longer fried and mixed. A method was developed, some contend by nomads, of layering the rice and meat, rice always constituting the bottom and top layers, in an earthenware pot, which was then sealed and placed on hot embers to cook. The Mughals popularized this type of biryani in India, where it was typically made from goat or lamb and baked (dum) over coals in an earthenware pot known as a handi. Initially, biryani was a royal dish, but eventually Hindu employees developed vegetarian (tahiri) versions, which became far and away the most widespread. In 1856, after the British conquered Calcutta, biryani reached that region, with a widespread innovation—it was baked as a casserole in an oven. Chicken emerged as a popular substitute for meat. Potatoes were a common addition to the vegetable layer in Calcutta. Long-grain white or brown rice (chawal) was customary in northern and central India, while short-grain (jeera samba) was typically used in the south of the country.

  The Jewish vegetarian version, tahiri biryani, is a synthesis of Middle Eastern and Indian heritages. Since the dish does require a bit of work, it is generally reserved for special occasions. In particular, Indian Jews serve this casserole and another rice dish, pilau (pilaf), on holidays, especially Sukkot and Passover (Sephardim and Mizrachim eat rice on that festival), and for celebrations. Biryani is accompanied with a curry or, on dairy occasions, with raita (yogurt salad) or plain yogurt.

  Biscocho

  Biscocho is both the generic Ladino word for cookie as well as a term denoting a ring-shaped cookie baked at a high temperature until firm, then baked a second time at a lower temperature until crisp and dry.

  Origin: Spain

  Other names: biscotcho, biskotcho, bizcocho, panezico.

  The concept of twice baking bread to greatly increase its shelf life dates back at least to the ancient Romans, who included such bread in army rations. Ring-shaped biscochos are based on one of the most ancient of pastries, already
mentioned in the Talmud, and still popular in the Middle East, small savory bread rings called kaak and, by Sephardim, biscochos de levadura (yeast biscuits). Where the evolutionary step of adding sugar—technically creating a biscocho dulce—first occurred remains a matter of question. Medieval Iberia seems an appropriate location, as the dish was widespread well before the expulsion and Spain had a plentiful supply of sugar. The Spanish cookbook Libro del Arte de Cozina (1599) by Diego Granado, much of whose contents are borrowed from earlier Spanish and Italian cookbooks, contains two biszocho recipes as well as one for a rosquillas, akin to a sweet bagel.

  Although the Sephardic biscocho is similar in name and nature to the Italian biscotti, there were two major differences in the earliest forms of these cookies—biscotti were slices from a larger loaf and originally lacked any fat, while biscochos were ring-shaped and, from the onset, contained oil. Early Sephardim rarely baked with butter and cookies instead contained oil, creating an elastic dough that is easy to shape and a tender cookie. Sweet bread sticks are called biscochatha and parmak ("finger" in Turkish). Cookie versions containing egg are also known as biscochos de huevo (egg cookies).

  Biscochos are typically not overly sweet. Most contemporary Sephardic cooks enhance their cookies with vanilla, but some still add flavorings prominent before the advent of that extract, notably orange-blossom water, cinnamon, and anise. Some cookies are coated with sesame seeds or ground nuts, a widespread Turkish and Greek practice.

  These rings are ubiquitous at a Sabbath desayuno (brunch) and on Rosh Hashanah, as a symbol of the sweet year to come. Sesame-topped rings, variously called biscochos de susam, kaak ib sumsum, and taraleekoos, or the pretzel-shaped reshicas, are customarily served to break the fast of Yom Kippur. On Sukkot, some families hang biscochos from the branches of the sukkah as decorations. At a Sephardic Tu b'Shevat seder, the second item in order is a biscocho made from wheat flour. Turkish and Greek Jews use strips of the dough on Purim to encase hard-boiled eggs, symbolizing Haman's bars or a part of his anatomy; the dish is called foulares in Turkey and folarikos in Greece. A special mounded cookie, biscochos Har Sinai, representing Mount Sinai, is enjoyed on Shavuot. Matza meal is substituted for the flour for Passover biscochos.

  (See also Kaak and Rosca)

  Sephardic Cookie Rings (Biscochos Dulces/Biscochos De Huevo/Kaak)

  about forty-eight 2-inch cookies

  [PAREVE]

  About 4 cups (20 ounces) all-purpose flour

  5 teaspoons cornstarch or potato starch (optional)

  1 tablespoon baking powder

  ¼ teaspoon salt

  4 large eggs, lightly beaten (1 cup)

  1 cup sugar

  1 cup vegetable or olive oil

  1 teaspoon vanilla extract, 1 tablespoon orange-blossom water, 2 tablespoons anise seeds, or ¼ cup ground cinnamon

  1 cup sesame seeds or ½ cup coarse sugar (optional)

  1. Preheat the oven to 350°F. Line 2 large baking sheets with parchment paper or grease the sheets.

  2. Sift together the flour, cornstarch, baking powder, and salt. In a large bowl, beat together the eggs and sugar until thick. Beat in the oil and vanilla. Stir in the flour mixture to make a soft, shiny dough. Cover and refrigerate for at least 8 hours.

  3. Take 1 tablespoon of the dough, roll into a 4-inch long rope, and bring the edges together to form a ring. If desired, cut gashes on the outer edges every ¼ to ½ inch or, before sealing, twist the strip several times to coil. If using, dip 1 side into the sesame seeds and place, seed side up, onto the prepared sheets, leaving 1 inch between the rings. Repeat with the rest of the dough.

  4. Bake until the rings are firm but not browned, about 15 minutes. Remove the cookies from the oven and repeat with the next batch.

  5. When all the cookies are firm, place them close together on the baking sheets, reduce the heat to 250°F, return the cookies to the oven, and bake until crisp and golden, about 20 minutes. Transfer to wire racks and let cool completely. Store in an airtight container for up to 1 month or in the freezer for up to 6 months.

  Variation

  Greek Pretzel-Shaped Cookies (Reshicas):

  Loop the ends of the dough ropes over the middle to produce a pretzel shape.

  Black-Eyed Pea

  There are a number of Asian and African legumes subsumed under the category of field beans, the most well-known in the West being the mung bean and its close relative, the black-eyed pea. Despite its common name, it is actually a bean, not a pea.

  Black-eyed peas have been cultivated for more than five millennia in eastern Africa, India, and southern China. By biblical times, they emerged as an important crop in Africa and were commonly identified with that continent; they were known as pol ha-mitzri (Egyptian bean) in the Talmud. Widely grown in Israel in Talmudic times and common among Sephardim before the expulsion from Spain, they remain popular in only a few Jewish communities, particularly those from the Balkans, Turkey, Syria, northern Iraq, southern India, and the southeastern United States.

  Black-eyed peas are a late-harvest bean, typically planted in June. Differing from most Old World legumes, black-eyed peas are eaten both fresh and dried. Fresh seeds are pale green with a nutty-earthy, somewhat sweet flavor. When young, the pods can also be boiled and eaten. Similar to other legumes, black-eyed peas have an amino acid profile that complements grains. In Africa, black-eyed peas are commonly eaten with millet. In the eastern Mediterranean, they are typically partnered with rice. Middle Eastern Jews prepare a black-eyed pea salad or, for a favorite Friday night dish, cook them with tomatoes and onions, a common practice among Jews from the domains of the former Ottoman Empire; tomato, onion, and garlic all enhance the bean's flavor. Black-eyed peas are generally served as a side dish or for breakfast.

  Sephardim have lived on the Caribbean island of Curaçao for more than three and a half centuries. One of their classic dishes is tutu (black-eyed peas with cornmeal mush), a synthesis of Iberian and Caribbean influences, which has been widely adopted by non-Jews there.

  During the medieval period, the black-eyed pea's Arabic name—lubiya (derived either from Luv, "Libya," or the Greek lobos, "pod")—was mistakenly confused with the Talmudic rubiya ("fenugreek" in Aramaic), the latter a traditional Rosh Hashanah food because its name sounds similar to the Hebrew word for multiply/increase (yirbu). Thus black-eyed peas, fresh ones coming into season just before the holiday, became a symbol of fertility and prosperity and a popular Sephardic Rosh Hashanah food. Many families, especially those from Egypt, serve fresh black-eyed peas at Rosh Hashanah dinner as the sixth item among seven simanim (symbolic foods) consumed in a Seder-like ceremony of a series of blessings known as Yehi Ratzones, "May it be Your will, Lord our God and God of our Fathers sheh'yirbu zachi'yoteinu [that our merits may multiply]." During the meal, Egyptians also use fresh or dried black-eyed peas in a stew with lamb or veal or a salad (lubiya). In other Sephardic communities, Rosh Hashanah dinner usually contains a black-eyed pea dish, typically served over rice or cooked with rice, such as the Greek and Turkish black-eyed peas in tomato sauce (fijones frescos) and Syrian black-eyed peas with veal (lubiya m'sallat). The Sephardic custom of eating black-eyed peas on Rosh Hashanah was continued by those living in the southeastern United States and, around the time of the Civil War, widely adopted by non-Jews there, black-eyed peas becoming a traditional Southern New Year's Day food in dishes like hoppin' John (black-eyed peas with rice).

  Blehat

  Blehat is a meat loaf, typically with whole hard-boiled eggs arranged in the center before baking.

  Origin: Egypt

  Other names: blehat lahme bi beid.

  The Jews of Spain more frequently possessed a home oven than members of most other communities, and they often baked dishes, such as carne al horno (meat of the oven). Because of the home oven's rather late arrival in North Africa and the Middle East, the predominant way of cooking ground meat was in small portions over a flame, such as stuffed into vegetables or as meatball
s. In the Maghreb, small meat loaves were cooked in a Sabbath stew or in a pot over a flame. In Egypt, these meat loaves typically contained hard-boiled eggs, akin to the Anglo Scotch eggs. After Sephardim introduced carne al horno to Middle Eastern communities, some cooks also began baking the loaf inside an oven, preparing loaves such as the Egyptian belehat, a traditional Sabbath dish served warm at night or cold for lunch.

  Whether cooked on the stovetop or baked, the ground meat must, in the Middle Eastern manner, have a smooth texture, not be coarse in the European fashion. For generations, the meat was customarily pounded with a mortar and pestle, but today a food processor is more common. Some versions mix in chopped dried apricots and pine nuts. Middle Eastern meat loaves, especially those topped with tahini (sesame seed paste), became immensely popular in modern Israel.

  Blini

  Blini are yeast- or baking powder—leavened pancakes, traditionally made with buckwheat flour.

  Origin: Eastern Europe

  Other names: Russian: blinchiki; Ukrainian: blyntsi, mlynets.

  Blini (blin singular) is the generic Slavic word for pancakes, derived from the Slavic mlin/mlyn (to mill). The difference between a blini and a blintz is that the former is usually thicker and often contains some form of leavening, while the latter, like a crepe, does not. Pancakes made from various grains, especially barley, have been prepared in the Slavic areas of eastern Europe for thousands of years, a round shape being the natural form of a pancake on a griddle. To the Slavs, this shape became symbolic of the sun. Thus around the spring equinox, Slavs celebrated Maslenitsa ("Pancake Week," but also called Butter Week), and cooked pancakes to honor the return of the sun.