by Gil Marks
It was only slightly later in America and England, as eastern European culture overwhelmed that of the Germans and Sephardim, that challah emerged as the predominant English term for the Sabbath bread. One of the first appearances of the word challah, spelled "Chollas," in English was in Dainty Dinners and Dishes for Jewish Families (London, 1907) by May Henry and Kate Halford. Within a decade, the spelling of the name began to formalize. An article in the Jewish Guardian (London, October 31, 1919) described the bread: "Challa. The twisted Sabbath loaf, [is] very often baked at home. It is of finer and whiter flour than the ordinary bread. The word has been adopted by English bakers, and the 'challas' are often seen advertised in provincial shops as 'Jews' Collars.' "
The first record of the word in America seems to be in the self-published Glimpses of a Strange World by Henry S. Stollnitz (Cambridge, Mass., 1908), who noted, "He spoke the prayer over the 'Chalos' (showbread), and the repast progressed amid joy of mind, grasped the 'gefillte kishke' (filled intestine) and thrust it into the throat of her beloved Chatskel, which process would surely have suffocated the agonized man had it not been for Esther's presence of mind quickly to pull it out again. Once more happiness reigned and Chatskel turned his voice for 'Zemiros' (the table hymns)." Although most Jewish immigrants in America continued to pronounce the word as khale, by the late 1920s, native English speakers had largely adopted the more biblical pronunciation and spelling of challah, challa, or hallah.
The use of challah as the name for Sabbath bread was widely adopted in Israel as well. Braided challah loaves are sold at every Israeli market, large or small, and most bakeries. The Linder bakery in the Mea Shearim section of Jerusalem, dating back to the late nineteenth century, is devoted solely to making challah; each Thursday and Friday it turns out batch after batch of golden braided egg loaves and rolls. Israeli challah tends to be less sweet than American versions, as it is eaten with an array of savory spreads.
In America, the sweet, rich egg challah or the rather redundant "challah bread," has become well-known in non-Jewish circles. It is sold at many mainstream bakeries and supermarkets. Many recipes for French toast and bread pudding call for challah as the bread of choice. Non-Jewish cookbooks and magazines offer recipes for these braided loaves; some chefs, like Julia Child, add the unorthodox milk and butter, and some even offer vegan versions. Martha Stewart published a recipe for pumpkin challah, without any butter or milk, but plenty of eggs. Today, there are even recipes for chocolate challah containing cocoa powder and chocolate chips.
Although in mainstream America, the term challah specifically denotes a braided loaf, among many Jews, the meaning subsumes any special Sabbath bread, whether braided or not.
(See also Bollo, Bread, Khobz, and Sabbath/Shabbat)
Ashkenazic Egg Bread (Eier Challah)
1 very large, 2 large, or 3 medium loaves
[PAREVE]
2 packages (4½ teaspoons) active dry yeast or 1 (1-ounce) cake fresh yeast
2 cups warm water (105 to 115°F for dry yeast; 80 to 85°F for fresh yeast)
About 2/3 cup sugar or honey
4 large eggs
½ cup vegetable oil
1 tablespoon table salt or 5 teaspoons kosher salt
About 8 cups (2½ pounds) bread or unbleached all-purpose flour
Egg wash (1 large egg beaten with 1 tablespoon water)
About 3 tablespoons poppy or sesame seeds for sprinkling (optional)
1. Dissolve the yeast in ¼ cup water. Stir in 1 teaspoon sugar or honey and let stand until foamy, 5 to 10 minutes. In a large bowl, combine the yeast mixture, remaining water, remaining sugar or honey, eggs, oil, salt, and 3 cups flour. Gradually add enough of the remaining flour to make a mixture that holds together. Place on a lightly floured surface and knead until smooth and elastic, about 10 minutes. Place in an oiled large bowl and turn to coat. Cover loosely with plastic wrap or a kitchen towel and let rise in a warm, draft-free place until doubled in bulk, about 1½ hours, or in the refrigerator overnight.
2. Punch down the dough and let rest for 10 minutes. Shape the challah into three-strand braids, six-strand braids, or spirals (recipes follow). Place the shaped loaves on a greased large baking sheet or in greased loaf pans, cover with a kitchen towel, and let rise in a warm, draft-free place until doubled in bulk, about 45 minutes.
3. Preheat the oven to 350°F.
4. Brush the challah with the egg wash, being careful not to drip any onto the baking sheet, and sprinkle with the optional poppy seeds. Bake until golden brown and hollow sounding when tapped on the bottom, about 35 minutes for medium challahs and 45 minutes for large ones. Transfer to a wire rack and let cool.
Challah Shapes
Three-Strand Braided Challah
3 medium loaves
1 recipe Ashkenazic Egg Bread (Eier Challah) dough
1. Divide the dough into 3 equal pieces, then divide each piece into 3 equal pieces. Roll into ropes with the middle slightly thicker than the ends.
2. Working with 3 ropes at a time, place them parallel to each other, then pinch together one end. Number the ropes from right to left #1 through #3. With the pinched side away from you, place the right-hand rope #1 over the center rope #2 and bring the left-hand rope #3 over rope #1. Bring rope #2 over rope #3. At this point, rope #1 is now on the left-hand side and rope #3 is on the right side. Bring rope #1 over rope #2, then #3 over #1.
3. Continue this pattern until reaching the ends of the ropes, then pinch the ends together to seal. Repeat in the same fashion with the remaining ropes.
Six-Strand Braided Challah
2 large loaves
1 recipe Ashkenazic Egg Bread dough
1. Divide the dough in half, then divide each piece into 6 equal pieces. Roll into 12-inch-long ropes with the middle slightly thicker than the ends.
2. Arrange 6 of the ropes parallel to each other, numbering the ropes from left to right #1 through #6. Starting from the right side, place the ends of the ropes on top of each other, then pinch to seal.
3. With the pinched side away from you, move #1 on the far left over the other pieces to be on the far right side, perpendicular to the others, then move #6 from the far right over the other pieces to be on the far left side, perpendicular to the others. Now bring #1 over to be in the middle of the central four ropes between #3 and #4.
4. Bring #2 to the far right to be perpendicular to the others, then bring #6 from the far left down the middle between #1 and #4.
5. Continue in this pattern of alternately bringing what had previously been the far right rope to the other side, then bringing the far left-hand rope into the middle. Upon reaching the ends of the rope, place one on top of the others and press to seal. Repeat in the same fashion with the remaining ropes.
Spiral Challahs (Faiglan)
3 medium loaves
1 recipe Ashkenazic Egg Bread dough
1. Divide the dough into 3 equal pieces. Roll each piece into a 3-inch-thick rope with one end tapered.
2. Place the thicker end in the center of a greased baking sheet and coil the dough around it in a spiral fashion, tucking the tapered end into the center or under the bottom. Repeat in the same fashion with the remaining ropes.
Chambaliya
Chambaliya is a medieval honey cake.
Origin: Italy
Other names: dolce di miele; torta di miele.
The fall of Rome and advent of the Dark Ages led to a dramatic decline in European agriculture and food. Medieval European baked goods were crude, heavy concoctions, typically made from bread crumbs. Later even with the addition of flour, most traditional Italian honey cakes remained more of a confection, like the panforte. On Purim, Italian Jews eat this cake, which is drizzled with syrup in the Middle Eastern manner.
Chametz
The word chametz, which can serve as a noun or as an adjective, derives from chamas (to do violence/oppress). Some people mistakenly translate chametz as "soured," partially because it is related to the word for
vinegar (chometz), which is neither the source nor intent of the word. In addition, chametz—although frequently mistranslated as "leavened bread," "fermented," "fermentation," and "yeast"—means none of these things.
According to Maimonides, there are three positive biblical commandments and five prohibitions applicable on Passover if you are Jewish. The three positive commandments are to dispose of all seor (inedible starter dough) on the fourteenth day of the month of Nisan, to eat matza on the first night of Passover (the fifteenth), and to relate the events of the Exodus from Egypt on the first night of Passover.
The five Biblical prohibitions are not to eat chametz from noon on the fourteenth day of Nisan, not to eat chametz all seven days of Passover (eight outside Israel), not to eat food mixtures containing chametz throughout the seven days of Passover, not to own chametz or seor during Passover, and not to have chametz or seor found in your possession during Passover. In addition, the Bible forbade the presence of chametz on the altar of the Temple. Entirely unique about chametz is that it is the only substance prohibited for a limited time span—the seven days of Passover.
The Talmud makes clear that only five particular grains and their subvarieties, collectively known as the Chamesha Minim (Five Species), are capable of becoming chametz when exposed to water, as well as being appropriate to use for making matza. The Five Species are chittim, se'orim, kusmin, shippon, and shibbolet shi'al, which probably refer, respectively, to naked wheat varieties (the husks are loosely attached to the seed), including durum and bread wheat, six-rowed barley, emmer, einkorn, and two-rowed barley. According to the Talmud, any similar physical processes in grains other than the Five Species, such as "rice and millet," are the result of sirachon (decay/rotting). In any case, the wheat and barley families definitely share a special and unique attribute that enables them, unlike other grains, to become chametz.
Chametz is the result of enzymatic activity. Certain enzymes specialize in breaking down starch in the presence of water into complex sugars and simple sugars; this process is called degradation. Only degraded grain items, chametz, are prohibited by the Bible during Passover. The Bible does not prohibit plain yeast (yeast is necessary to make wine), other leavening agents (such as baking soda and baking powder), or other grains (besides the Five Species). Seor (starter dough) is prohibited.
Although all leavened bread is chametz, not all chametz is leavened bread. Pasta, generally a simple mixture of durum wheat and water, is neither leavened nor fermented, but is definitely chametz. So is beer. Pointedly, degradation occurs whether yeast is present or not (as does chimutz) and, thus chametz is neither equivalent to nor dependent on yeast or fermentation. Consequently, kosher wine and hard cheese, both created by fermentation (wine from yeast and cheese from bacteria and not from grain degradation), are permissible on Passover, as is a matza meal cake containing baking soda or kosher-for-Passover baking powder (both forms of leavening).
(See also Kitniyot, Matza, Passover, and Seor (Starter Dough))
Chard
Chard, a member of the Chenopodiaceae (goosefoot) family, is so closely related and linked to the beet, both being subspecies of the same plant, that they share the same name in ancient Aramaic (silka). The English word chard derives from the French name for cardoon (carde), to which it is not related. To distinguish it from cardoons, in the nineteenth century, some people took to calling it Swiss chard, although it is neither native to nor popular in Switzerland. Unlike the beet, chard never developed a large edible root, so its culinary usage remains limited to its leaves.
Chard grows best in coastal areas with plentiful rainfall and it is in those countries around the Mediterranean where this plant is primarily used. It tolerates both heat and cold, and was historically among the few greens available in winter, as the leaves grow back after trimming. Chard served as a replacement for spinach during the heat of the summer when many greens turn exceedingly bitter and go to seed.
The large, crinkled chard leaves range in color from dark green to red; the stalks are white or red. Some plants have striking vivid red stems running like veins through bright green leaves. Young leaves can be used raw in salads. Older leaves are used like spinach and the tougher stalks are cooked like asparagus and celery or pureed. The stems are usually detached and cooked separately. Unlike collard and other tough greens, chard cooks quickly, yet can be simmered for a long time without falling apart like most greens do.
Chard is popular in France, Italy, Syria, the Ma- ghreb, and Israel. In Israel, it is more widely available fresh than spinach, which is not commonly grown commercially there. Chard is generally prepared simply and rounded out by a basic olive oil dressing. It is also added to lentils and stews, used as a filling for pastry or pasta, or stuffed like grape leaves. Italians add chard to winter lentil and white bean soups and, along with chicken meatballs, to their hammin (Sabbath stew). Syrians use it in pancakes, omelets, dips, and stews. Turks stuff it (pazi sarmasi) as well as add it to a casserole with mashed potatoes, feta, and kashkaval cheese. Kurds enjoy chard in a variety of soups with kubbeh (dumplings), including chamutzta, a sour green soup, and marak kubbeh adom, a red soup with chard, beets, tomato paste, and paprika, which are traditional Friday night dishes.
Chard is a traditional Rosh Hashanah food, as its Aramaic name silka is similar to the Aramaic word for "to remove/disappear," as in sheyistalek oyvenu (may our enemies be removed). Thus for Rosh Hashanah dinner, Sephardim from Turkey might serve keftes de silka (chard patties), while Syrian meals would typically feature chard with meat.
Charoset
Charoset is a fruit mixture used at the Passover Seder for dipping maror (bitter herbs). The charoset also accompanies the bitter herbs, along with matza, in the koraik (Hillel sandwich).
Interestingly, most of the early rabbinic sources in all Jewish communities also required the karpas (the first dipping of the Seder) be immersed into charoset, and Maimonides instructed that all ritual foods of the Seder, including the matza, be dipped into it. Many Yemenites, who generally follow Maimonides, maintain the custom of dipping the karpas into charoset. On the other hand, today Ashkenazim and most Sephardim dip the karpas into salt water or wine vinegar, reserving charoset exclusively for the bitter herbs.
Charoset, already in widespread use by the time of the Mishnah (c. 200 CE), is unquestionably the most flavorful and arguably everyone's favorite of the Seder foods. The institution of charoset, as with much of the Seder not mandated by the Bible, derived from Greco-Roman practices two thousand years ago. Attendees at the Seder were expected, for that evening, to emulate the practices of nobility and free people and, at the table of the Roman elite, greens were always accompanied with a dressing or condiment. The emergence of charoset was also probably influenced by the fruit relishes served at the Roman symposium, although the ingredients of the original charoset were based upon Middle Eastern produce. In effect, the use of charoset has the same effect as the customs of dipping the karpas at the onset of the Seder and reclining during the Seder—these practices are all intended to produce an overall sense of affluence, aristocracy, and atypicality for the Seder. The Talmudic discussion emphasizes that the more symbolism we can impart to the charoset (and other items), the richer the experience will be. Thus the Sages constructed (and deconstructed) charoset, instilling it with a multitude of symbolic meanings, to help convey the Egyptian experience and create a special atmosphere and enriched ceremony for the participants of the Seder.
The Talmud presented three different outlooks on the symbolism of charoset: "Rabbi Levi said: In memory of the tapuchim [a fruit tree]. Rabbi Yochanan said: In memory of the tit [mud]. Abaye observed [combining the two]: Therefore one must l'kahavyhu [make it acrid] and thicken it: make it acrid in memory of the tapuchim and thicken it in memory of the cheres [clay]."
The opinion of Rabbi Yochanan that the origins of charoset lay in Nile mud is the most obvious one, reflected in its very name, derived from the later preferred term cheres. According to th
is view, charoset, like the bitter herbs dipped into it, serves as a reminder of the slavery and oppression of Egypt and the mud the Israelites used to make bricks. Mashed dried fruits, particularly dates, evoke this symbolic meaning, as they resemble mud. The more obscure assertion of Rabbi Levi—"in memory of the tapuachim"—refers to Songs of Songs: "Under the tapuach I raised you up [awakened you], there your mother was in travail with you, there she was in travail and gave birth to you." Tradition explains that the Israelite women in Egypt would give birth in tapuach orchards, away from prying eyes, so that the Egyptians would be unable to discover that a male was born; this pratice served to perpetuate the Israelites. In Kabbalah, a tapuach orchard is frequently pictured as a symbol of the divine presence. Thus tapuchim denotes hope and redemption even in the muck and mire of extreme oppression and suffering. The symbolism of tapuchim is the reason for using various fresh fruits and acidic elements in charoset.
Exactly which tree is the tapuach and which fruit should be used in the charoset are matters of contention. The word tapuach, from the root napach ("to exhale/exude," i.e., a sweet scent), was not mentioned in the Pentateuch, but the fruit it names was certainly an important Israeli crop by the end of the First Temple period more than twenty-five hundred years ago. As its name and other citations indicate, the fruit has a pronounced fragrance. In addition, the Talmud directed that the charoset "be acidic/acrid in memory of the tapuach." Thus this fruit must have been extraordinarily fragrant, yet sharp and bitter.
In modern Hebrew as well as in many Talmudic references, tapuach has the meaning of "apple," a fruit that was perhaps native to the Caucasus region. Many authorities, however, believe that the biblical tapuach was in fact a different fruit, for in the biblical period apples only grew wild and they were not easily cultivated in tropical areas like Israel and Egypt. The apple is also neither fragrant nor acrid.
