by Gil Marks
Fritters. Areas with plentiful supplies of inexpensive fat deep-fry small masses of food. The names and ingredients vary from place to place. 1 Spain—bimuelos, bolos, fritas; 2 France—beignet; 3 Netherlands—beignet, grimsel; 4 Germany—fritlach, pfannkuchen, krapfen; 5 Austria—plinz; 6 Poland, Baltic States, Ukraine, Romania—crimsel; 7 Italy—frittella, pizzarelle; 8 Greece—loukoumades, zvingous; 9 Turkey—lokmas; 10 Uzbekistan—samsa; 11 India—samosa, bonda, gulab jamun, malpuah
Deep-fried dough was popular among Romans, who called it globi/globuli (balls). Cato the Elder (c. 160 BCE) recorded the method for making this dish: "Mix the [soft white] cheese and spelt flour in equal parts, sufficient to make the number desired. Pour fat into a hot copper vessel, and fry one or two at a time, turning them frequently with two spoons. Remove when done, coat them with honey, and sprinkle poppy seeds on it. They are ready to serve." Later, the Roman cookbook author Apicius (c. 400 CE) described the making of vermiculos (Latin for "little worms"), deep-fried strips of dough bathed in either honey or the ubiquitous pungent Roman condiment liquamen (fermented fish sauce). After the fall of the Roman Empire, however, these fried doughs disappeared from much of Europe.
Meanwhile, Arabs during the early medieval period continued to fry unleavened strips of dough, and also used yeast to leaven loose doughs (creating rudimentary doughnuts). The Arabs in the seventh century also brought sugarcane westward from Persia to Egypt; sugar refining was soon mastered in Egypt, leading to an increase in sweet pastries. These techniques eventually spread to Europe. For centuries after the First Crusade (1095), Spain (under the enlightened Moors) and Italy served as the epicenters of European culinary advances, with many of these innovations gradually making their way northward. These new dishes and techniques were primarily transmitted by Jews, who traded or relocated throughout Europe, and by the Catholic clergy—many monasteries and convents retained Roman culinary techniques, as well as adopted the new ones and developed their own. Commonly, a new item would appear in an Italian source, then show up in Germany about a century or so later.
In early fourteenth-century Italy, a new technique for cooking dumplings, either sweet or savory—deep-frying—and a new term for them—fritelle—appeared. Fritelle de pome (apple fritters) were recorded in the fourteenth century, as were fritelle made from slices of fresh cheese and pine nuts; ones from ground elderflowers (fiore de sambugho); and dumplings from a dough of almond milk, flour, and starter dough. In France, these deep-fried dumplings became known as en friture. This led to the English word frytour and, by the seventeenth century, fritter. The Yiddish name, fritlach, is very different from other central European names, which suggests that this dish reached the Ashkenazim from Italy and not central Europe.
Since few households except those of the upper class possessed an oven, until relatively recently most homemade pastry tended to be fried. Along the Mediterranean and in Romania and parts of Hungary, there was an abundance of oil and, consequently, even peasants could enjoy fritters; cooks were able to transform a few inexpensive ingredients into tasty treats for both everyday and holiday fare. However, there was generally a dearth of oil in most of northern Europe, where doughs were more commonly boiled as dumplings and noodles. Therefore, among most Ashkenazim, deep-frying was rather rare, and fried pastries were generally reserved for special occasions. Many Ashkenazic fried pastries were associated with a specific holiday, in particular Passover and Hanukkah.
A fritter batter can be fried solo in lumps, mixed with various chopped ingredients, or used for coating large pieces of vegetables or fruit (frucht fritlach). The consistency must be thick enough so that the batter adheres to the food. The addition to the dough of olive oil and anise are a mark of a fritter's Mediterranean origins. For the fillings in coated fritters, Ashkenazim were generally limited to a few types of fruit, notably apples and cherries, while Italians enjoyed more exotic fare, such as figs, pumpkin, ricotta cheese, and rice. Sephardim use a wide range of ingredients to make various fritters, including bolos de keso (soft cheese fritters), tulumbas (boiled dough), and bolos de pan (bread fritters). Deep-frying is an ancient technique in India, where the Bene Israel of Mumbai make a number of fritters, including malpuah (banana fritters), kaftas (grated vegetable-and-chickpea flour fritters), and vadas (lentil fritters).
A widespread form of Passover fritters and pancakes is made from crumbled matza. These fritters are known as knopfle in parts of southern Germany and Austria, matza crimsel in eastern Europe, and gremsel or gremselish in western Europe. Jewish Cookery by Esther Levy (1871) offered recipes for both a sweet fritter called "Grimslechs for Passover" and a savory version titled "Matzo Fritters." Sephardim refer to matza fritters as bimuelos del pesaj and dip them in arrope (raisin syrup). Romans add raisins, pine nuts, and orange zest to the matza batter and dip the fritters in honey to make pizzarele con giulebbe and pizzarele col miele. In Ferrara, Italy, matza fritters are made with honey, candied etrog, raisins, pine nuts, and cinnamon.
The advent of baking powder in 1835 and its popularization in the 1880s led to a revolution in pastry making and frying, allowing cooks to produce light fritters without the need for yeast. Although fruit fritters found some popularity in Israel, the country's favorite fritter is far and away the savory falafel.
(See also Bimuelo, Bonda, Doughnut, Haman's Ear (Oznei Haman), Kefte, Lokma, Malpua, and Zalabia)
Italian Rice Fritters (Frittelle de Riso per Hanukkah)
about 24 fritters
[PAREVE]
3 cups water
About 1 teaspoon salt
1½ cups Arborio, Carnaroli, or Vialone Nano rice
¾ to 1 cup raisins
6 large eggs, lightly beaten
¾ cup pine nuts or chopped almonds
2 teaspoons grated lemon zest
1 teaspoon vanilla extract
Olive or vegetable oil for deep-frying
Sugar or cinnamon-sugar for sprinkling
1. In a medium saucepan, bring the water and salt to a boil. Add the rice, cover, reduce the heat to low, and simmer until the rice is tender and has absorbed all the water, about 25 minutes. Let cool.
2. While the rice cools, soak the raisins in warm water to cover. Drain.
3. Transfer the rice to a medium bowl and stir in the eggs, raisins, nuts, zest, and vanilla.
4. In a deep, heavy skillet or saucepan, heat at least 1 inch oil over medium heat to 375°F.
5. In batches, drop the batter by tablespoonfuls into the oil. Fry, turning once, until golden brown on all sides, 2 to 3 minutes per side. Using a slotted spoon, remove the fritters and drain on paper towels. Sprinkle with the sugar. The fritters can be kept warm in a 250°F oven while preparing the remaining fritters.
Ful Medames
Ful medames is a vegetarian dish of slow-cooked fava beans.
Origin: Egypt
Other names: ful mudammas, ful.
The Talmud mentions a practice in the town of Sepphoris of slow-cooking shachalayim (fava beans with vinegar) in the hot springs and furnaces of Roman baths for the Sabbath. This dish resembles the later Sephardic hamin/adafina (Sabbath stew). In some other areas, notably Egypt, the ashes of the public baths, which were used to heat the water, proved an ideal medium for cooking the hard beans for Sabbath lunch.
The Coptic Orthodox of Egypt, who practiced one of the earliest forms of Christianity, believed that the original state of humankind was vegetarian and, therefore, mandated numerous days of eating only vegitarian food, including two well-known Coptic vegetarian dishes, tamiya (fava bean falafel) and ful medames. The Copts slow-cooked fava beans in the local Cairo bathhouses, probably imitating their Jewish neighbors, who cooked their Sabbath stews there. Even the dish's name reflects a similarity with adafina—medames comes from the Coptic word for buried, reflecting the linguistic and cooking method's similarity to the ancient Jewish practice of tomnin et ha'hamin (burying the warm dishes).
In Egypt, ful medames, practically the national dish,
is enjoyed daily by rich and poor alike. It can be found everywhere at any time of the day—it is sold at fancy restaurants, special ful stores, and by street vendors. Even today, many Egyptians do not make ful at home, but rather rely on vendors. After slow-simmering, the soupy fava beans are typically mashed and then served with fresh bread, which is used to scoop up the beans. People flavor their own servings with their choice of olive oil, garlic, lemon juice, yogurt, fresh mint, cilantro, and chopped onions. For breakfast, ful is frequently topped with a fried egg.
Ful medames is served by Egyptian Jews as a breakfast dish, commonly accompanied by tomato and cucumber salads, black olives, and plenty of pita bread to sop up the sauce. It is also served as a side dish at lunch and dinner, as part of a mezze (appetizer assortment), and for Sabbath lunch. Hard-boiled eggs are a distinctive Jewish touch.
Egyptian Slow-Simmered Fava Beans (Ful Medames)
4 to 5 servings
[PAREVE]
3 quarts water
1 pound (about 2 cups) dried fava beans, preferably the small, round variety called pigeon bean (ful hammam); dried white beans; or large dried lima beans; soaked in water to cover for 8 hours and drained
About 1/3 cup olive or vegetable oil
5 to 6 cloves garlic, minced, or 1 medium onion, chopped
About ¾ teaspoon ground black pepper or ½ teaspoon ground cumin
6 to 8 eggs in shell, washed well
1/3 cup chopped fresh flat-leaf parsley or cilantro
About ¼ cup fresh lemon juice
About 1½ teaspoons table salt or 2½ teaspoons kosher salt
Mashed garlic, ground cumin, samna (clarified butter), and/or olive oil (optional)
1. In a large pot, bring the water to a boil. Add the beans, return to a boil, cover, reduce the heat to medium-low, and simmer, stirring occasionally, for 30 minutes.
2. Stir in the oil, garlic, and pepper. Add the eggs in their shells. Reduce the heat to low and simmer, stirring occasionally and adding more water if necessary, until the beans are very soft, at least 2 hours or even overnight. The cooking time varies according to the size and variety of the bean. Drain.
3. Remove the eggs. Peel, then quarter or chop. Set aside.
4. Some people prefer the beans whole, while others prefer them slightly or completely mashed. If desired, mash one-third of the beans, then stir in the remaining beans. Add the parsley, lemon juice, and salt to the beans and toss to coat. (Egyptians commonly let individual diners add their own salt at the table.) Taste the beans and adjust the seasonings if necessary. To further flavor the ful, mix in a little garlic, cumin, and samna or olive oil. Divide the beans between serving bowls and top with the eggs. Serve warm or at room temperature accompanied with pita bread.
G
Galaktoboureko
Galaktoboureko is phyllo dough layered with a semolina custard (galakto) and drizzled with a sugar syrup or sprinkled with confectioners' sugar.
Origin: Greece
Other names: galakto bouriko, galaktopita, galatopita.
Centuries of Persian control over western Asia, central Asia, and India left its imprint on the cuisine of those areas. In turn, the Turks absorbed Persian fare and spread it to the regions under their control. Therefore, many of the dishes enjoyed throughout the Middle East, as well as in Greece, the Balkans, and Italy, can be directly traced to the Persians and Turks. Among the foods that the Turks brought with them from central Asia was a dumpling called bugra, which by the fifteenth century had evolved into a myriad of filled and layered pastries—baked and fried, large and small, sweet and savory—collectively known as börek.
Until the eighteenth century, the bulk of the southern European diet consisted of porridges, called sitos in Greek, puls in Latin, and dysah in Hebrew. These gruels were usually served plain or flavored with onions, garlic, and herbs. For a special treat, they were cooked with milk instead of water and sweetened with a touch of honey. Over the years, börek was combined with a semolina sitos and refined with milk (gala), butter, eggs, and sugar, giving rise to a popular Turkish and Greek phyllo-layered treat, galaktoboureko. The phyllo and filling are formed into large pies as well as small individual rolls. Semolina pudding is also baked without the phyllo, a particularly Jewish practice; this version is known as galaktopita zarka, the latter word meaning "naked." These pastries are made at home as well as sold in sweet shops called zacharoplasteion (zacharo means "sugar") and galaktozacharoplasteion.
The semolina pudding has a creamy, though slightly grainy texture similar to that of curd cheesecake. The pudding should not be too thick, but rather custardy. The proportion of semolina and eggs varies. Adding a little orange juice and zest to the filling and soaking syrup produces a galaktoboureko portokali. Some people like pieces of dried fruits and nuts in their filling, while others insist on enjoying the custard pure and plain. A galaktoboureko filled with an almond custard is called a Copenhagen. Versions are also made with a rice-flour pudding. The pastry was typically enriched with and drizzled with sugar syrup in the Middle Eastern manner, although today many people prefer it simply sprinkled with confectioners' sugar.
Galakto pastries make a tasty breakfast treat, but are also served by Greek Jews after special dairy meals, such as on Shavuot, when the rectangular shape of individual small pies resembles the stone tablets of the law that Moses formed on Mount Sinai. They are also popular at the meal following Yom Kippur.
(See also Boreka)
Greek Semolina Custard Pie (Galaktoboureko)
12 to 16 servings
[DAIRY]
Galakto:
¼ cup (½ stick) unsalted butter
¾ cup (4.5 ounces) fine semolina or farina (not semolina flour)
4 cups milk
1 cup sugar, or ½ cup sugar and ½ cup honey
¼ teaspoon table salt or ½ teaspoon kosher salt
4 large eggs, lightly beaten
2 teaspoons vanilla extract, grated lemon zest, or grated orange zest
½ to 1 cup finely chopped dried apricots, golden raisins, finely chopped blanched almonds, or finely chopped walnuts (optional)
1 teaspoon grated orange or lemon zest, or ¾ teaspoon ground cinnamon (optional)
16 sheets phyllo dough
About ½ cup (1 stick) unsalted butter or margarine, melted and preferably clarified
2 cups cooled atar (Middle Eastern Sugar Syrup (Atar/Shira)) or 1 cup confectioners' sugar
1. To make the galakto: In a large saucepan, melt the butter over medium heat. Stir in the semolina. Gradually stir in the milk. Add the sugar and salt. Reduce the heat to medium-low and simmer, stirring frequently, until the mixture thickens, about 10 minutes. Remove from the heat and gradually beat in the eggs. Stir in the vanilla. If using, add the dried fruit and/or zest. Pour the pudding into a medium bowl, press a piece of plastic wrap against the surface, and let cool. The pudding can be stored in the refrigerator for up to 2 days.
2. Preheat the oven to 350°F (325°F if using a glass pan). Grease a 13-by-9-inch baking pan.
3. Place a sheet of phyllo in the prepared pan, letting the edges drape over the sides, and lightly brush with butter. Repeat with 7 more sheets. Spread with the cooled galakto and turn the overhanging sides of the pastry over the filling.
4. Cut the remaining 8 phyllo sheets into 13-by-9-inch rectangles and arrange on top of the filling, brushing each with butter. Using a sharp knife, carefully cut crosswise through the top sheets of phyllo into serving size diamonds or squares.
5. Bake until the pastry is golden brown, about 40 minutes. Cut into squares. Drizzle with the cooled atar or sprinkle with confectioners' sugar. Serve warm or at room temperature. Store at room temperature for up to 1 day.
Galuska
Galuska is a small flour-based dumpling.
Origin: Hungary
Other names: Hungarian: galushka, nokedli; Slavic: halushki, halusky; Ukrainian: galushki.
Galuska (the plural is technically galuskák, but galuska is used collo
quially for the plural also) is elemental to the Hungarian kitchen—certain Hungarians insist that anyone who cannot cook galuska, cannot cook Hungarian. Galuska, which is economical and easy to prepare, is the most widespread form of Hungarian dumplings or pasta.
When dumplings and pasta reached eastern Europe, Slavs began making small irregularly shaped loose egg batters called halushki (meaning "little ears," as they were originally triangular), akin to the German spaetzle (little sparrows) and ribbles (little rubs) and Ashkenazic triflach (little trifles). Ukrainians called them galushki, which the Hungarians adapted as galuska. It was in Hungary that these simple dumplings, sometimes referred to as a "pasta dumpling," achieved their widest popularity.
Most of Europe did not grow durum wheat, which is necessary to make Italian-style pasta, so cooks needed to add eggs to their dough of common wheat flour to enable it to hold up during boiling. Galuska dough also contains about an equal amount of water as it does eggs, and is a somewhat loose mixture, making it more of a dumpling than a pasta. Csipetke (literally "pinched") are Hungarian soft egg noodles pinched or dropped from a dough firmer than galuska and looser than egg noodles, a culinary link between galuska (dumplings) and metelt (noodles). When made with semolina, these dumplings are known as daragaluska. Unlike some versions, Jewish galuska does not include milk or lard. Cooked galuska are soft and tender.
In the nineteenth century, Hungarians invented precedent-setting milling techniques, producing finer white flour and, consequently, higher-quality dumplings and noodles. Around the same time, some cooks began adding mashed potatoes to the galuska dough, forming a dough (krumpli galuska) similar to that of Italian gnocchi, although most continued to use the original pure flour version. Somloi galuska is an unrelated dessert of sponge cake pieces with vanilla cream, chocolate sauce, raisins, and walnuts.
Recently, manufacturers created a galuskaszaggató, a simple utensil with holes through which the batter is pressed that is similar to the rotary spaetzle machine. However, many cooks insist on making galuska in the old-fashioned manner by cutting strips of the dough and pushing them off of a board or plate into a pot of boiling water. Galuska should all be bite-sized. Forming the irregularly shaped dumplings is a matter of speed, not uniformity or fastidiousness. It does take a bit of practice to get the rhythm and wrist action down to cut each batch. Galuska are served with soups and any dish that is creamy or has a rich gravy, notably goulash, chicken paprikash, cooked cabbage, and soft cheese (túrós galuska).
