Encyclopedia of Jewish Food

by Gil Marks

  4. Bake until set but not browned, about 12 minutes. Let the cookies cool on the sheets set on a wire rack. If desired, sprinkle with confectioners' sugar. Store in an airtight container at room temperature for up to 1 week or in the freezer for up to 6 months.

  Ginger

  Ginger is the knotty rhizome of an orchidlike plant grown in tropical climates. A native of east Asia, possibly southern China, it spread throughout much of the Orient before recorded history. As international trade expanded, ginger's pungency became an integral part of cuisine and medicine throughout most of the ancient world. Traders brought ginger to the Greeks and Romans, who in turn spread it throughout Europe. However, with the breakdown of trade during the medieval period, ginger and other Eastern spices frequently became scarce commodities in the West. On his return from China, in 1295, Marco Polo created a renaissance for ginger in Europe, and with the resumption of trade its availability returned. However, ginger only regained its former popularity in northern Europe, where it was used in the dried and ground form, as southerners had developed a taste for more delicate flavors.

  Fresh ginger grows in the shape of a hand. There are two types—gray (sometimes called green) and white. The exact flavor of each variety depends on the locale in which it was grown. Gray ginger, grown primarily in India, is slightly lemony and camphoric and the more pungent variety. White ginger, common in Jamaica, is more delicate and aromatic. The larger the hand, the more piquant the flavor.

  Besides fresh, ginger is available in a variety of forms: ground, crystallized, and pickled. Ground ginger, which is dried and powdered, has a different flavor from fresh and the two do not generally serve as substitutes for each other in most dishes.

  Ginger is one the principal spices of Indian Jews, who primarily enjoy it fresh. Sephardim and Mizrachim occasionally include it among the numerous spices in their pantry, most often dried and in combination with other spices. The ground form of ginger (ingber) was one of the few spices used by eastern Ashkenazim, who commonly and pronouncedly added it to tzimmes, lebkuchen (gingerbread), lekakh (honey cake), and ingberlach (confections).

  Glatt

  The Bible states: "Meat from an animal that treifah (has been torn) in the field you shall not eat." The Sages interpreted this verse to mean that to be kosher an animal must be free of any mortal injury, even if that animal was ritually slaughtered before death. Thus after slaughter, the animal is examined to determine if it was healthy and, therefore, kosher. Most major organs—including the heart, brain, liver, spleen, kidneys, intestines, and stomach—rarely evidence diseases or injuries and do not require any special scrutiny, unless there is some indication of a problem. Lungs, on the other hand, are commonly affected by defects and must be carefully examined (bedikah) before an animal can be certified as kosher. Glatt ("smooth" in Yiddish) refers to an animal that upon examination is determined to have no perforations or other defects in its lungs.

  When cattle graze, they commonly swallow other objects besides grass; as the food descends the esophagus into the upper stomach, these objects tend to puncture a lung. Therefore, more often than not, the lungs of even domesticated animals bear patches of body tissues united by fibrous tissues called adhesions (sircha), which are indicative of a puncture in the lung. Unless this wound heals, the animal is not kosher. The Talmud permits an animal with damaged lungs as long as any puncture is covered with a scab, indicating that it has healed. After slaughter but before the removal of the organs from the chest cavity, the examiner (bodek) runs his hands over the lobes of the lungs to determine if they are properly formed and free of any tangible adhesions. If he discovers any lesions, the lungs are removed and visually examined for defects. Those lungs determined to be free of any perforations or other defects are called chalak (literally "smooth" in Hebrew) or glatt, the more commonly used Yiddish equivalent. Nonetheless, even lungs with an adhesion can be kosher. To determine if a lung is punctured or not, the lung is inflated with air, then the questionable section is submerged under water. If no air bubbles appear on the surface, the animal is perfectly acceptable, although not glatt. Only a relatively small percentage of cattle prove to be glatt, generally one in twenty.

  Since such a small percentage of cattle turn out to be glatt, meeting this demanding qualification is a major hardship. Thus the practice among Ashkenazim, as codified by Rabbi Moses Isserles (1525—1572) of Kraków, Poland, was that if small adhesions can be peeled from the surface of a cow's lung without perforating it and the lung remains airtight, the animal is deemed kosher although not glatt. Most Sephardim and Chasidim, on the other hand, only accepted glatt meat as kosher. Even among European Jews, the leniency of adhesion removal only applies to large cattle and buffalo, not to small herd animals. Therefore, lambs, goats, and deer must have smooth lungs. In any case, for the vast majority of European Jews, the acceptability of cattle with permissible lesions on the lungs remained the rule, a practice that their descendants later brought to America.

  At the beginning of the twentieth century, agents of the nascent Chasidic communities in New York would once or twice a week travel to a New Jersey slaughterhouse to butcher glatt beef for their fellow Chasidim, barely producing enough to meet even this limited demand. Then in the 1950s, after the influx of Hungarians and Chasidim in the wake of World War II, the demand for glatt meat began to increase and spread outside of its traditional strongholds. At that time, there were more than thirty-five hundred kosher butcher shops in the New York metropolitan area, none of them offering exclusively glatt meat. As the attention to kosher food in general increased in the 1960s and 1970s and community standards frequently grew more rigid, so too did the interest in glatt meat. Because kosher meat production and distribution in America was rife with problems, including no way to ensure kashrut standards, many kosher consumers turned to glatt as a means of ensuring that the meat was kosher. The Orthodox Union (OU) only adopted a policy of requiring exclusively glatt meat in the late 1970s. Ultimately, glatt became the predominant standard for kosher meat in America.

  As the popularity of glatt kosher meat increased, however, so did the misuse of the term. It is all too common for the term glatt to be applied to chickens, although it is impossible to check their tiny lungs, or fish, which do not even have lungs. Even dairy products have been promoted as glatt, a completely absurd development. Indeed, today the label "glatt kosher" does not even ensure that the lungs of a cow were actually free of all adhesions; many authorities agree that small adhesions that come off easily without leaving a perforation are not considered a problematic sircha and the meat, therefore, is still considered glatt. Indeed, beef labeled simply as "kosher" can actually have fewer adhesions than some meat sold as "glatt." In order to indicate genuinely "glatt" meat—meat that is free of all adhesions—a new term has emerged in some circles: "glatt Beit Yosef," referring to the teachings of the Sephardic scholar Rabbi Joseph Caro. Thus today glatt is generally a marketing tool and frequently not a sign of a smooth lung or even a higher degree of kashrut standards.

  Gnocchi

  Gnocchi are dumplings, often made with mashed potatoes or ricotta cheese.

  Origin: Italy

  As with many medieval European culinary innovations, dumplings first emerged in Italy, probably through contacts with Middle Easterners around the thirteenth century. Dumplings were a flavorful, filling, easy to make, and versatile way to use up leftovers. A basic bread mixture was the foundation for the earliest European dumpling—later in the sixteenth century called a panada (from the Spanish for "boiled bread")—which provided a way to utilize stale bread and extend stews and soups. The earliest Italian records of "macaroni" (from the Italian for "paste") in the thirteenth century referred not to pasta but rather to rudimentary dumplings made from "bread paste" and boiled in stews and soups. In the Renaissance, as modern cooking began to develop, semolina and other cereals were substituted for the bread in dumplings and the term macaroni came to mean only pasta.

  In Tuscany by the fo
urteenth century, dumplings had already acquired the name gnocchi (Italian for "lumps"). Shortly thereafter, versions of dumplings were made—many originating with Italian Jewish communities—with ricotta, spinach, and chard, and, with the arrival of American foods in the sixteenth century, cornmeal, winter squash, and pumpkin. These types of gnocchi probably emerged as a way to use leftover ravioli filling, but eventually became a beloved dish on their own. After the popularization of the potato in Italy in the nineteenth century, cooked and mashed potato became the most popular base for gnocchi. Also around this time, tomato sauce became a widespread topping for gnocchi, joining cream, browned butter, and butter-sage sauces.

  The sizes, shapes, and flavorings of Italian dumplings vary from region to region. However, typically ridges are imprinted on one side of each gnocco (singular), creating a surface to catch the sauce, and an indentation is made on the other side to help the center to cook through. Most gnocchi are cooked like pasta in lightly salted boiling water, although gnocchi cook more quickly, and there are also versions calling for baking. Once cooked, they are simply tossed with butter and grated cheese or topped with a sauce. Ricotta dumplings are also served plain, called gnocchi gnudi (naked dumplings). Thursday emerged in Rome as the traditional day to serve gnocchi, as it was customary to serve a dairy meal before the Sabbath, but they are popular anytime, usually as a primo piatto (first course).

  (See also Dumpling)

  Italian Cheese Dumplings (Gnocchi di Ricotta)

  about 36 dumplings/6 to 8 servings

  [DAIRY]

  2 cups (1 pound) whole-milk ricotta cheese

  ½ cup (1.5 ounces) grated Parmesan cheese

  ¾ cup (3 ounces) grated mozzarella or Swiss cheese (optional)

  2 large eggs, lightly beaten

  1 large egg yolk

  ½ teaspoon table salt or 1 teaspoon kosher salt

  Ground white pepper to taste

  1 cup cooked, squeezed, and chopped spinach (optional)

  ¼ to ½ teaspoon ground nutmeg

  About ¼ cup all-purpose flour

  ½ cup (1 stick) unsalted butter

  1. Line a sieve or colander with cheesecloth, place over a large bowl, spoon the ricotta in the center, place in the refrigerator, and let drain overnight. You will have about 1¼ cups ricotta.

  2. In a large bowl, combine the cheeses, eggs, egg yolk, salt, pepper, optional spinach, and nutmeg. Stir in enough flour to bind. Cover with plastic wrap and refrigerate until firm, about 1 hour.

  3. Flour your hands and form the cheese mixture into walnut-size balls. Flatten slightly and place on floured parchment paper or wax paper.

  4. Bring a large pot of salted water to a simmer. In several batches, add the gnocchi, stirring to prevent sticking. Simmer until they rise to the surface, about 10 minutes. Remove with a slotted spoon and drain.

  5. Preheat the oven to 375°F. Heat a large overproof dish.

  6. Place the butter and gnocchi in the heated dish and toss to coat. Bake until heated through but not dry, about 15 minutes. If desired, top with additional Parmesan cheese, tomato sauce, or cream sauce.

  Goat

  Goats—the word refers to any of the eight species belonging to the genus Capra—were originally nomadic residents of cliffs and arid climates throughout much of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Goats were among the earliest domesticated animals; they were probably first tamed in the highlands of western Iran and became an essential element of human life well before sheep and cattle came into the picture. The generic Hebrew term for a goat is eiz (ezzim is the plural and the name of the species), which is derived from the root "strength" and is utilized for both female and male goats. Most of the various breeds of domesticated goats are descended from the Near Eastern bezoar goat (Capra aegagrus, probably the biblical akko), except for the Angora (source of mohair) and Kashmir (source of cashmere), which are descended from the Markhor (Capra falconeri). The predominant breed in the ancient Middle East was the Syrian mountain goat or Mamber (Capra hircus mambrica), which sports longer hair than most other domesticated breeds. Its predominantly black hair is occasionally streaked, speckled, and spotted with white and brown. Today, there are more than eighty thousand Mamber goats in Israel, primarily in Bedouin flocks in the Negev, which are tended as in the days of the patriarchs. Also in Israel are crossbreeds of Mambers with Saanen goats imported from Europe; the Saanens have a higher milk yield than the Mambers.

  Goats, a familiar sight in Marc Chagall's depictions of the shtetl, such as Man and Goat, 1925, were kept by many Ashkenazic families to provide milk, and when too old, meat.

  Goats and sheep are close relatives and share many characteristics. But the goat's hollow horns arch backward and outward, while sheep horns twist spirally. Since humans first domesticated them, both goats and sheep have been raised for their wool, milk, skins, and flesh. However, the sheep's principal asset has been its wool, while the goat's has been its milk. The biblical phrase "a land flowing with milk and honey" refers to goat's milk.

  Goat meat tends to be very lean and, as a result, it is frequently less tender than other red meats. The meat of kids, which are usually slaughtered between three and six months, is more tender and delicate than meat from older goats, and not as strongly flavored as lamb.

  Considering the goat's importance in ancient Israel, it is hardly surprising to find it utilized in various Jewish rituals. Goat hair was employed to make the curtains used to cover the portable Tabernacle (Mishkan) that accompanied the Israelites until the construction of the Temple in Jerusalem. The goat is one of the animals suitable to be an offering in the Temple; it was sometimes optional—as in the paschal offering and a sin-offering of an individual—and sometimes mandatory. Noting the utilization of goats for the various public sin-offerings, Maimonides in Guide to the Perplexed explained that this was to compensate for the actions of the sons of Jacob, who dipped Joseph's cloak into the blood of a goat.

  Goats, which had been indispensable in biblical times and the predominant form of meat and milk, by the Talmudic period were viewed in Israel with more ambiguity. The Mishnah states: "Sheep and goats are not to be raised in the land of Israel but may be raised in Syria and the [uncultivated] wilderness of Israel." Although there was a dissenting opinion that a goat was permitted if it was tied up, most of the Israeli rabbis forbade goats even under that circumstance. This negative attitude probably arose in the wake of the massive ecological devastation wreaked by the Roman army in the wake of the first rebellion (67—70 CE); as large swaths of the land of Israel were left a wasteland, which sparked hostility toward flocks of goats that further threatened agriculture. The Babylonian rabbis never developed the aversion to goats and sheep of their Israeli counterparts.

  Despite these negative attitudes toward goats, most of the milk, cheese, and meat consumed in the Middle East during the Talmudic period through the early twentieth century was still from goats. Goat was the primary meat of Ethiopians, reserved for special occasions. Goat is traditional Passover fare in Italy. Many Ashkenazic households owned a goat to maintain a regular supply of milk for the family, which explains the goat's common reoccurrence in artist Marc Chagall's depictions of Jewish life in eastern Europe. Today, goat remains the principal source of meat in much of North Africa and parts of the Middle East, but goat meat is a rarity in America, Europe, and Israel.

  Gogol Mogol

  Gogol mogol is a drink containing raw egg yolks, which serves as a remedy for sore throats and colds.

  Origin: Ukraine

  Other names: gogl-mogl.

  Gogol is Ukrainian for "wild duck," a source of eggs in that region. Beginning in the seventeenth century, among Jews in Ukraine, Byelorussia, Russia, Romania, and some parts of Poland, the rhyming nonsense phrase gogol mogol referred to a familiar home remedy for sore throats and colds. The name may have been inspired by its similarity to the names of a well-known biblical pair of kings, Gog and Magog, who will wage the final war before the onset of the messianic age. The
Jewish drinkable version is different from the more complex non-Jewish Russian gogol mogol, which is a mousse-like dessert.

  The simplest form of gogol mogol consisted of raw egg yolks beaten with a little honey or sugar until nearly white in color. Some cooks added warm milk to the sweetened egg yolks, rendering it similar to eggnog, while others mixed in some whiskey, to help the sick person sleep, or a little lemon juice. Others stirred in a little schmaltz or butter. In a 2009 interview in the New York Times, Barbra Streisand recalled that during her Brooklyn childhood her mother gave the future singer what she pronounced "guggle muggle", which contained hot milk, to soothe and strengthen her voice. The research of Dr. Shmuel Givon of the Israel General Medical Service revealed that a gogol mogol widens the blood vessels in the throat, thereby allowing the flow of more blood, and stimulates an immune response that eases the inflammation. Some children looked forward to a gogol mogol, while others had to have it poured down their throats. With the development of commercial cold medicines and fears concerning raw eggs, the use of gogol mogols dramatically decreased.

  Ashkenazic Raw Egg Drink (Gogol Mogol)

  1 serving

  [PAREVE]

  2 large egg yolks

  2 to 3 tablespoons brown sugar, granulated sugar, or honey

  Dash of vanilla extract, lemon juice, whiskey, or rum

  1 cup warm milk (optional)

  In a small bowl, beat together the egg yolks, sugar, and vanilla until thick and creamy and the sugar dissolves. If using, add the milk.

  Gombóc

  Gombóc is a large dumpling, either sweet or savory. Some are stuffed with various fruit and vegetable fillings.

  Origin: Hungary

  Hungarians, influenced by Austrians, northern Italians, and Ukrainians, prepare a variety of dumplings, notably galuska (rudimentary dumplings), csipetke (pasta-like dumplings), and the larger gombóc (from the Hungarian gömb, "ball/sphere"). (Gombócok is technically the plural, but colloquially gombóc is also used for the plural.) Hungarian dumplings, like other central European versions, originated in the medieval period as bread dumplings. Inspired by changes in Italian Renaissance cuisine, Hungarians began substituting semolina and flour for the bread. For dessert, sugar was added. Matza balls are called macesz gombóc. In the mid-nineteenth century, mashed potatoes (krumplis gombóc) also became common dumpling bases.