by Gil Marks
2. Reduce the heat to medium-low, stir in the starch mixture, and simmer, stirring frequently, until the pudding thickens and turns translucent, about 5 minutes. Stir in the lemon juice.
3. Pour into 6 to 8 custard cups. Refrigerate until chilled, at least 2 hours.
Kitniyot
The Bible is very explicit about what is forbidden for consumption during Passover—chametz. The Talmud precisely defines what can become chametz—only the Five Species of grains (probably naked wheat varieties, including durum and bread wheat; emmer; einkorn; six-rowed barley; and two-rowed barley) and their subvarieties when exposed to water. Therefore, other grains and legumes were perfectly acceptable on Passover. From the time of Moses and for millennia afterward, this principle remained the standard. The only explicit deviation was the singular opinion of Yochanan ben Nuri in the Talmud that "Rice and millet are near to becoming chametz." He therefore forbade these other grains on Passover in addition to the Five Species. This view, however, was roundly rejected by all the other rabbis, who said, "We do not pay attention to the opinion of Yochanan ben Nuri." Some Sages, perhaps to demonstrate their rejection of his assertion, included rice as part of their Seder.
Later Moses Maimonides codified the law according to Sephardim: "Rice [and other items besides the Five Species] cannot become chametz." Then an enigmatic custom emerged in late medieval France of forbidding the consumption of kitniyot (kitneet singular), a Talmudic term, derived from the Hebrew word katan (small), originally referring to legumes.
The first recorded reference advocating the practice of not eating kitniyot on Passover was in Sefer Haminhagot (c. 1210), written in Provence (a separate and distinct cultural community from Ashkenaz) by Rabbi Asher ben Saul of Lunel, an early kabbalist. He wrote, "It is the universal custom not to eat kitniyot during Passover because they rise and become chametz." This view was supported by Rabbi Isaac ben Joseph (d. 1280) of Corbeil in northern France, who stated, "Concerning kitniyot, such as peas, fava beans, rice, lentils, and the like, our Rabbis are accustomed to prohibit eating them at all on Passover, and this seems correct." He contends that this custom was observed since the time of the kadmonim ("early ones," denoting the Ashkenazic authorities before the First Crusade in 1096). However, nowhere do any of the early Ashkenazic authorities mention or even hint at the custom of kitniyot.
According to many authorities, kitniyot did not originate as a specific prohibition on Passover; instead, it originated as a prohibition that some people wanted to impose on the consumption of legumes on all holidays—not in fear of chametz, but because legumes were considered "poor person's food" in Persia and parts of Europe. Legumes, especially lentils, were generally avoided by the upper class, except at times of famine and severe need. Lentils were also traditionally a food of mourning and, therefore, in some communities, were not consumed for the entire month of Nisan. This taboo was dismissed by most authorities, including Achai Gaon (eighth century), the first major rabbinic authority after the closure of the Talmud. He declared, "All types of kitniyot may be cooked whether on Passover or on other festivals." There also emerged a medieval European belief that wheat kernels could look like lentils and fava beans. Thus the stringent prohibtion of kitniyot probably developed due to mistakes.
The prohibition against kitniyot found almost no foothold outside of the Ashkenazic community and also initially faced much opposition within. Rabbi Isaac of Corbeil records that Rabbi Yechiel of Paris (d. 1265), his father-in-law and teacher, ate yellow split peas on Passover. Rabbi Yechiel was the leading Ashkenazic scholar of his time and, therefore, his rejection of the custom was notable. In the thirteenth century, Rav Samuel ben Solomon of Falaise called the prohibition against kitniyot "minhag ta'ut" (an erroneous custom). Rabbenu Yerucham ben Meshullam (1290—1350), raised in Provence and educated in France and later moving to Toledo, Spain, declared it to be "minhag shtut" (a foolish custom).
Nevertheless, the custom not to eat kitniyot continued to garner adherence within the widespread Ashkenazic community and, further complicating matters, additional items were gradually included among those considered kitniyot, including carob, anise, caraway, cardamom, coriander, cumin, mustard, and poppy seeds. Some American foods—corn, green beans, sunflower seeds, and peanuts—were also later added to the category. Some authorities expanded the ban even to items that are not edible as seeds, but can be processed for edible derivatives, such as cottonseeds, which are not ground into flour or piled like grains, and can in no way be mistaken for grains. Interestingly, the Ashkenazic rabbinic establishment included buckwheat in the taboo category, while Chasidim in the eighteenth century accepted its consumption during Passover and used it instead of matza for making dumplings and pancakes, although not for the Seder. Eventually, Chasidim too rejected the use of buckwheat for Passover. Certain families, primarily Chasidim, forbade garlic under the presumption that it was planted between rows of grain to act as a natural insect repellent. Some Chasidim would not eat anything without a peel, as the item might have been touched by someone in contact with chametz, thereby rejecting such foods as strawberries and tomatoes (even though tomato skins can be peeled off ). There was even a nineteenth century attempt to include potatoes as kitniyot, but this was duly rejected by the populace.
There is a disagreement among authorities as to whether derivatives of kitniyot (mei kitniyot), such as oils and extracts produced from kitniyot, are permissible for consumption on Passover. Before the 1960s, these were generally permitted and kosher-for- Passover peanut oil and cottonseed oil were common. Cottonseed oil has only been used for food since the end of the nineteenth century and was once accepted by most people on Passover and permitted by many authorities. Although the soybean is a legume, it was not initially included by the ban and is processed as well. However, the forces of stringency pressured the supervising agencies, and today, Ashkenazic kashrut organizations do not permit peanut, corn, cottonseed, or soy derivatives. Most canola plants grow in Canada, where, some people claim, they are planted in too close proximity to wheat fields, rendering them problematic. The Israeli rabbinate ruled that canola oil is a kitniyot derivative and now most American supervising agencies advise, "Canola oil is not recommended."
All the same, kitniyot does not have the same status as chametz. Indeed, in periods of severe famine and trouble, Ashkenazic authorities temporarily permitted the consumption of kitniyot on Passover, because health and survival outweigh a custom.
Non-Ashkenazic communities differ over which foods are permissible on Passover. Today, some Sephardim, as a rule, eat only fresh legumes, such as fresh green peas, fresh fava beans, and green beans, and not dried legumes, while others enjoyed fresh and dried ones. Generally, Jews from Arabic-speaking countries, except some Moroccans, eat rice, while many of those from European countries do not. Thus the Sephardic list of acceptable Passover foods commonly includes rice cereals and corn flakes (those that are under rabbinic supervision). Even the families who eat rice have the practice of carefully examining the kernels, some repeating their inspection three or seven times, to ascertain that no wheat or barley grains are mixed in. Italian Jews eat kitniyot, but eschew all dairy products for the entire holiday, since the animals were usually fed forbidden grains which can fall into the milk. Many Moroccans also abstain from dairy during Passover.
The restriction of kitniyot on Passover remains one of the major differences between Ashkenazim and other Jewish communities. In Israel, with its large number of Sephardim and Mizrachim, many of the Israeli products labeled "kosher for Passover" contain kitniyot.
(See also Chametz and Passover (Pesach))
Klaicha
Klaicha is a small, filled pastry.
Origin: Northern Iraq
Other names: Calcutta: sambusak; Iran: kulcha, kullech; Iraq: baba bi tamir, kaleecha, kleicha; Kurdistan: kasmay.
In ancient Sumeria, bakers made special small moon-shaped cakes filled with dates or raisins, known as qullupu (from the Semitic kall, "whole,
" and kll, "to complete"), which were used in temple rituals. Pottery molds for forming similar cakes were discovered in excavations at the Sumerian city of Mari (now in southeast Syria), dating from shortly before the city was sacked by Hammurabi in 1759 BCE. Descendants of those pastries were adopted by ancient Persians and medieval Arabs and their Jewish neighbors, and recipes for baked filled pastries were included in several medieval Arabic cookbooks. Similar cookies are still widely enjoyed today throughout the Middle East.
Klaicha mhashshaya (stuffed klaicha) are beloved in Iraqi, Afghan, and Iranian communities. Some are savory but others contain a sweet filling, notably date, walnut, or coconut. The original pastry was made with a yeast dough, but today many people substitute an easier semolina dough. In the Levant, semolina versions are known as maamoul. Unlike European yeast pastries, the dough is not sweetened, but contains butter or oil and, for sweet fillings, sometimes spices, notably cardamom or the local spice mixture, hawayij. Much of the flavor derives from the filling. Klaicha can be formed as small rounds, half-moons, and crescents; a three- to four-inch round disk with little holes cut in the top is a khfefiyyat, and triangle-shaped pastries are called fatayar. Round cookies are commonly formed in a special wooden mold called qalab al-klaicha.
Klaicha are enjoyed for special occasions, served with coffee or tea. Sweet klaicha are considered the national cookie of Iraq and no Iraqi celebration would be considered complete without them. Baba bi tamir (literally "wad with date"), the Jewish name for klaichat tamir (date-filled klaichas), is a Purim favorite among Iraqis. It can now be found in many Israeli bakeries, especially those in areas with a sizable Iraqi or Persian population.
Iraqi Filled Yeast Pastries (Klaicha)
about 36 medium pastries
[DAIRY or PAREVE]
1 package (2¼ teaspoons) active dry yeast or 1 (0.6-ounce) cake fresh yeast
1¼ cups warm water (105°F to 115°F for dry yeast; 80°F to 85°F for fresh yeast), or ¼ cup water and 1 cup milk
1 teaspoon sugar
½ cup (1 stick) unsalted butter or margarine, melted
½ teaspoon salt
4 cups (20 ounces) bread or unbleached all-purpose flour
1 recipe Date Filling or Nut Filling (recipes follow)
Egg wash (1 large egg beaten with 1 teaspoon water)
¼ cup sesame seeds for sprinkling
1. Dissolve the yeast in ¼ cup water. Stir in the sugar and let stand until foamy, 5 to 10 minutes. In a large bowl, combine the yeast mixture, remaining water, butter, salt, and 2 cups flour. Add enough of the remaining flour, ½ cup at a time, to make a mixture that holds together. On a lightly floured surface or in an electric mixer with a dough hook, knead the dough until smooth and springy, about 5 minutes. Place on a flat surface, cover with a large bowl or pot, and let rise in a warm, draft-free place until doubled in bulk, about 1½ hours.
2. Preheat the oven to 375°F. Line 2 large baking sheets with parchment paper or lightly grease the sheets.
3. Punch down the dough. Fold over and press together several times. Let rest for 10 minutes. Divide the dough into 1-inch balls and roll out each ball into a thin 3-inch round. Or roll out the dough 1/8 inch thick and cut out 3-inch rounds, rerolling the scraps. Spoon 1 teaspoon filling into the center of each round. Gather the dough around the filling to meet in the center, pinch the edges to seal, and form into a ball. Using a rolling pin, flatten into a 2-inch round. Alternatively, fold over an edge to form a half-moon and press the edges to seal. Place 2 inches apart on the prepared baking sheets. Cover and let stand for 10 minutes.
4. Brush the tops with the egg wash and lightly sprinkle with the sesame seeds. Prick several times with the tines of a fork to form a flower pattern.
5. Bake until golden brown, about 15 minutes. Transfer the klaicha to a wire rack and let cool. Wrap and store at room temperature for up to 2 days or in the freezer for up to 2 months.
Klaicha Fillings
Date Filling
about 2 cups
[DAIRY or PAREVE]
1 pound (about 3 cups) pitted dates, finely chopped
½ cup water
2 to 3 tablespoons unsalted butter or margarine
In a medium saucepan, cook the dates and water over low heat, stirring frequently, for 10 minutes. Add the butter and cook until the mixture forms an almost uniform mass, about 5 minutes. Let cool.
Nut Filling
about 2 cups
[PAREVE]
8 ounces (2 cups) almonds, pistachios, or walnuts, ground
About 2/3 cup sugar
1 tablespoon rose water, orange-blossom water, or plain water
1 tablespoon vegetable oil or lightly beaten egg
½ teaspoon ground cinnamon (optional)
In a food processor fitted with a metal blade, process all the ingredients until smooth.
Klop
Klop is a meatball.
Origin: Germany
Other names: Yiddish: kahklehten, koklaten.
Until the advent of the hand-cranked mechanical meat grinder in the 1860s, forcemeat, whether prepared at homes or in butcher shops, had to be chopped by hand with a hackmeiser (curved blade) in a large wooden bowl, making it very time-consuming and work-extensive. Consequently, chopped meat was generally reserved for special occasions and was usually incorporated into a larger dish; for example, it was stuffed into cabbage leaves and peppers, or provided the filling for the medieval pastida (meat pie). Occasionally, the chopped meat was featured as klops (meatballs), a shortened form of fleischklops, from a northeastern German name for dumplings (klopse). Sweet-and-sour meatballs are sometimes called kulen or kuln (the name of a Croatian sausage). Karnatzlach are Romanian grilled ground meat and garlic patties.
Originally, the Ashkenazic klops contained much more bread than meat—it was actually a dumpling with meat. It also included plenty of the favorite Ashkenazic flavoring, onion. In the late nineteenth-century, following the arrival of the meat grinder and expanded beef production, meatballs, now featuring much more meat than filler, became even more commonplace on the Ashkenazic table. On the Sabbath and holidays, they were added to chicken fricassee, soups, or braised cabbage or cooked alone in a sauce. The term klops is also at times used in Yiddish to denote meat loaf, which is made from the same ingredients but larger in mass. Indeed, in modern Israel, klops frequently refers both to a meat loaf filled with hard-boiled eggs, and to large meatballs with an egg in the center.
Unlike the smooth texture of Middle Eastern ground meat, European ground meat is relatively coarse. Germans and Hungarians favor savory meatballs, while Galitzianers (from southern Poland) prefer sweet-and-sour sauces. In America, some cooks add nontraditional ingredients to the sauce, ranging from grape jelly to chili sauce. Klops are usually served with bread to sop up the sauce.
(See also Kufta and Meatball)
Knaidel/Kneydl
Knaidel is a dumpling. The most common type is now made with matza meal and is commonly known as a matza ball.
Origin: Germany
Other names: Yiddish: matza kloese, matza knaidel; Alsace: matza knepfle.
Ashkenazim, more than any other Jewish community, loved and relied on dumplings—in soups and stews or solo—as a major part of their diet. By the twelfth century, the concept of the dumpling, originally made from bread, had spread from Italy to Bohemia, where it was called knödel (knot). From there, the name traveled, with variations in pronounciation, to southern Germany, Austria, and France. The term also traveled eastward to the Slavic regions. The most widespread Ashkenazic name for dumpling became knaidel or kneydl, which is better known by the diminutive plural knaidlach or kneydlakh. As the medieval period waned, flour began to replace bread as the base in many dumplings. During the eight days of Passover, creative housewives had to find ways to feed their family using the limited ingredients available due to the dietary restrictions of the holiday. Germans discovered that they could substitute matza for the bread or flour, creating the most widely
known type of Ashkenazic dumpling, matza knaidel, which is often simply called knaidel. Soup with matza dumplings became the star of the Ashkenazic Seder meal.
Until relatively recently, matza knaidlach were almost exclusively a Passover food. Dumplings of bread, flour, semolina, or cheese were enjoyed throughout the rest of the year. In addition, until the twentieth century, dumplings made from crumbled matza were more prevalent than those made with the ground form, as pulverizing matza by hand required much more effort before the mechanical grinder and food processor. It was only in the early twentieth century, after Manischewitz introduced packaged matza meal, that this dumpling achieved mass popularization and its current status as an iconic Jewish food. Importantly, the presence of a uniform and inexpensive matza meal, as well as its promotion by its producers, led to matza meal dumplings becoming a Jewish food during the rest of the year—not only on Passover.
The first recorded recipe for ground matza dumplings was in the first Jewish cookbook in English, The Jewish Manual (London, 1846). The recipe for "Matso Soup," a beef and vegetable soup, directs: "Take half a pound of matso flour, two ounces of chopped suet, season with a little pepper, salt, ginger, and nutmeg; mix with this, four beaten eggs, and make into a paste, a small onion shredded and browned in a desert spoonful of oil is sometimes added; the paste should be made into rather large balls, and care should be taken to make them very light."
The first Jewish cookbook published in America, Jewish Cookery, by Esther Levy (Philadelphia, 1871), contained only "Matzo Cleis Soup," in which the dumplings were made of soaked whole matza and matza meal. It would take a while for the dumpling to garner its current English name, matza ball, reflecting the acculturation of eastern European Jews in America.
Perhaps the first record of the term was in Mrs. Rorer's New Cook Book (Philadelphia, 1902), by the food editor of Ladies' Home Journal and principal of the Philadelphia Cooking School, in a section called "A Group of Jewish Recipes," which included "Matzoth Balls for Soup." The first edition of The Settlement Cook Book (Milwaukee, 1901) contained two recipes for "Matzos Kloese," one made with soaked whole matzas and matza meal and the other calling for "Matzos or cracker meal," as well a recipe for "Matzos-Marrow Balls," made with matza meal. The 1903 edition omitted the previous recipes and included only "Cracker and Matzos Balls," which called for "butter size of walnut," butter being something generally unacceptable in a matza ball.
