Encyclopedia of Jewish Food

by Gil Marks

  Rye bread had evolved from being solely the province of bakeries and delis to being a staple in American grocery stores as well, but was still primarily purchased by Ashkenazim and other northern European communities. Then beginning in 1961, Henry S. Levy & Son, a Jewish bakery in Brooklyn dating back to 1888 that had been mentioned in the 1943 novel A Tree Grows in Brooklyn, introduced an endearing ad tagline, "You don't have to be Jewish to love Levy's." A 1967 subway poster campaign, one of the most influential ad promotions of all time, featuring that line along with a series of photographs of individuals from diverse ethnic backgrounds all happily eating a slice of "Levy's Real Jewish Rye" became a cultural phenomenon. It coincided with the visible movement of traditional Ashkenazic culture into the American mainstream. As a result, Levy's emerged as the largest seller of rye bread in the New York City area and rye bread became commonplace in American homes across the country. In 1979, the company was sold to Arnold Bakery of Greenwich, Connecticut, and the Brooklyn facility was shut down. The Levy's name and its impact on American culture endures. Once again, Jews had transformed a food not originally their own and transmitted it from one region to another, and in the process, become associated with it.

  (See also Bread and Pumpernickel)

  S

  Sabbath/Shabbat

  From twilight Friday, until the appearance of the first three stars on Saturday night, observant Jews refrain from creative work. They pray, study, reflect, and, in fulfillment of the commandment of oneg Shabbat (enjoyment of the Sabbath), also socialize, sing, and partake of three meals. In the words of Ahad Haam (pen name of Asher Ginsberg, considered the founder of spiritual Zionism as opposed to Theodor Herzl's political Zionism), "It is not so much that Israel has kept the Sabbath, but the Sabbath has kept Israel."

  The Sabbath commences with a series of cere- monies—Hadlakat Nayrot (kindling of the lamps), Kiddush ("sanctification" of the day), and Hamotzi (benediction over bread). These rites are attributed to the Anshei Knesset ha-Gadolah (Members of the Great Assembly), an enigmatic legislative body that functioned from about 500 BCE to 300 BCE. For these rituals, the Sages incorporated a biblical trio of agricultural products that were the mainstays of the diet and economy of ancient Israel and indispensible components of the Temple offerings—grain, wine, and olive oil. As a result, Sabbath dinner possesses a distinctive ambience. The table is set with a cloth and the family's finery. In the room where the Friday meal is eaten, at least two lights cast a glow over the celebrants, as food is best enjoyed when seen. The meal commences with Kiddush over a cup of wine or grape juice.

  Two loaves of bread, in remembrance of the double portion of manna that fell on Friday while the Israelites were in the wilderness, dominate the table. Historically, Ashkenazim subsisted on rye breads throughout the week, but for the Sabbath even the poorest attempted to procure white flour for a special braided challah. However, Sephardim and Mizrachim used the same weekday wheat bread for their Sabbath loaves. The bread is covered with a cloth, as the manna was protected by a lower and upper layer of dew. After ritually washing the hands (netilat yadayim), the benediction Hamotzi is recited over the loaves. The bread is then sliced or torn, customarily dipped into salt (another mandatory component of the Temple offerings), and given to all the diners.

  A repast of favorite and traditional delicacies follows. Sabbath food is traditional or special, intended to enhance, enliven, and differentiate the occasion. In many households, fish is the first course for Friday night, usually followed by a soup. Chicken is the predominant main course, accompanied with various starches and salads. Lively zemirot (Sabbath songs) are customarily sung and school children commonly repeat some of the lessons they learned during the previous week. Thus, a profoundly religious activity and enjoyably gastronomic and social experience become one and the same.

  The Sabbath is not an ascetic day, but rather one of feasting and enjoyment. Among those foods that promote joy are hot dishes. However, cooking, including heating and reheating liquids, is among the thirty-nine categories of creative work forbidden on the Sabbath. According to Jewish law, the food must be at least half-cooked before the onset of the Sabbath. Therefore, Jewish cooks needed to develop creative ways to serve some dishes warm not only for Friday night, but also for Saturday lunch, without using the usual methods. Thus the Talmud, in a list of the activities that a person must do on Friday afternoon before the onset of the Sabbath, included tomnin et ha'hamin (Aramaic meaning "cover/bury the warmed" dish). The content of the ancient hamin was not stated, but it probably consisted of some combination of whole grains, meat, and onions, akin to harisa (Sabbath porridge). Some Romans, notably the satiric poet Juvenal (early second century CE), derided Jews for preparing cophinus faenumque (a large bucket filled with hay), as hay was among the items used to insulate the food to keep it warm.

  A dispute between the followers of rabbinic Judaism and the Karaites led to the transformation of hot food on the Sabbath from a mere enjoyment to an imperative. Following the destruction of the First Temple, the Jews of Babylon and subsequently Persia enjoyed a substantial amount of autonomy. Without a legislative body, the Jewish community needed a unifying element as well as a way to manage its internal government, including the appointment of judges. At the same time, the Persian authorities required an administrator who could reach the sizable Jewish community, especially to serve as chief tax collector. Therefore, a hereditary exilarchate (secular Jewish authority over the Jews of Babylonia and Persia) was established, headed by a descendant of the house of David. From at least the second century BCE until the thirteenth century CE, the head of the exilarchate, the Resh Galutha (exilarch) served as the lay head of the Jewish community of Babylon and Persia. Meanwhile, Jews all over the world turned to the heads of the two Babylonian Talmudic academies of Sura and Pumbeditha for religious guidance.

  More than two millennia ago, Jews in Israel began preparing stews to cook overnight for Sabbath lunch. By the seventh century, Yemenites were enjoying harisa on the Sabbath. Gradually, Sabbath stews spread through Sephardic and Ashkenazic communities to become a beloved part of their culinary repertoire. 1 Israel to Iraq; 2 Iraq—harisa, tabyeet; 3 from Iraq to Yemen—harisa; 4 from Iraq to Iran—Chalebibi; 5 from Iraq to Kurdistan—Matphoni; 6 from Israel to southern Spain—adafina, harisa; 7 from southern Spain to northern Spain—hamin, harisa; 8 from Iraq to Tangiers—orissa (horisa); 9 from Spain to Maghreb—adafina/dafina, frackh, skhina, t'fina; 10 from Spain to Italy—hamin; 11 from northern Spain to Egypt—hamin; 12 from Spain to Greece—hamin; 13 from Spain to Turkey—hamin; 14 from Spain to Netherlands—Shkanah; 15 from Spain to France—Schalet (shalet); 16 from France to Germany—Schalet (shalet); 17 from Germany to Hungary—Sholet; 18 from Germany to Poland, Baltic States, Ukraine—Cholent (tsholnt)

  In 761, the exilarch Solomon ben Chisdai died childless and next in the line of succession was his oldest nephew, Anan ben David. However, the heads of the Talmudic academies passed over Anan to select his younger brother. In response, the disgruntled Anan denied the authority of the Talmud and rabbinic interpretation and professed a belief in strict adherence to the Written Law. The caliph imprisoned him as a rebel, but after Anan declared his beliefs a separate religion, he was released and made his way to Israel.

  At first, the Ananites proved relatively unsuccessful in attracting adherents. Then in the early tenth century, the group was absorbed into another sect, the Bnai Mikra (followers of the Scripture), abbreviated as Karaim (Karaites). The term Karaim was first recorded in the early seventh century, a century before Anan. However, the Karaites subsequently considered him the founder of their group and his descendants became leaders of the sect. Soon this antirabbinic movement emerged as a major force in some areas, at one point threatening to surpass the orthodox establishments in Egypt and Israel. However, faced with the fierce opposition of rabbinic Judaism, particularly by Saadiah Gaon (882—942), whose intellectual prowess, indefatigable energy, and command of Arabic made him an
overwhelming opponent, the Karaite movement waned. The Crusades in 1099 further weakened the movement as did the arrival in Egypt in 1166 of Moses Maimonides. The masses of Sephardic refugees who appeared in the Ottoman Empire after 1492 overwhelmed the remaining Karaites both culturally and numerically. Today, a small remnant of the Karaite community survives, including about twenty thousand living in Israel and perhaps ten thousand living elsewhere, primarily in the Crimea.

  In considering the claims of the Karaites, several facts become apparent. Many of the features and rites that practitioners currently prize most about Judaism are rabbinic in origin, including Hanukkah, Purim, Tu b'Shevat, Lag b'Omer, the siddur, Kiddush, Havdalah, the Seder (including the four cups of wine, charoset, and the Haggadah), and nayrot Shabbat (Sabbath lights). In addition, although some may claim that the written Torah is the only legitimate source of Jewish law, the text itself proves completely inadequate for constructing a way of life, requiring interpretation as well as frequent adaptations. Thus Karaites as well as the earlier sect, Saducees, were quickly forced to establish their own traditions, which were frequently more ascetic than those of rabbinic Judaism.

  Anan instructed that the thirty-nine types of work forbidden on Shabbat were extended to include anything not imperative for worship, sustenance, or essential human needs. Based on the biblical verse "Let every man remain where he is, let no man leave his place on the seventh day," Karaites stayed in their homes on the Sabbath except to go to their synagogue, an institution, which, it should be noted, was rabbinic in origin. One of the Karaites' principal doctrines, which was similar to a belief of the Saducees, involved the admonishment, "You shall not teva'aru a fire in all your habitations upon the Sabbath day." Whereas the rabbis interpreted teva'aru as a reference to kindling a fire, Karaites forbade the very presence of any fire or even hot food on the Sabbath. To followers of rabbinic Judaism, the Karaite version of the Sabbath was a cold and gloomy experience.

  As the dispute with the Karaites intensified, the practice of kindling the Sabbath lights and eating hot food for Sabbath lunch was no longer simply a matter of enjoyment, but an attestation of identification with rabbinic tradition. To emphasize the point, the rabbis instituted the recitation of a blessing for the Shabbat lights, "asher kidshanu b'mitzvotav v'tzivanu lehadlik ner shel Shabbat" (Who has made us holy with His commandments and has commanded us to kindle the Sabbath lights). Zerahiah ben Isaac ha-Levi (the late fourteenth-century rabbi of Saragossa and Aragon) in his Sefer ha-Ma'or declared, "Whoever does not eat hamin [Sabbath stew] on the Sabbath should be investigated on suspicion of being a heretic [a Karaite]." In the fifteenth century, many Karaite authorities began to permit the presence of fire on the Sabbath and many followers emulated the practice of Sabbath lights and even allowed warm foods.

  The second Sabbath meal follows the morning prayer service on Saturday. The mood at lunch is similar to that of the first meal, but the foods served are quite different. In order to stay fresh without refrigeration, many Sabbath dishes contain vinegar or other acids as a preservative and often a sweetener or dried fruit to counter the piquancy. Kugel, kishke (stuffed derma), and other dishes were devised that could simmer over a very low fire until Sabbath lunch.

  Beginning in the late eighteenth century, samovars and other heating devices were used to keep liquids and foods warm for the Sabbath.

  Sholem Aleichem, in his 1915 short story "Tit for Tat," described a special Sabbath lunch consisting of typical eastern European dishes:

  "The next day, after services, we sat down at the table. Well, you should have seen the spread. First the appetizers: wafers [kichlach] and chopped herring, and onions and schmaltz with [black] radishes and chopped liver and eggs and gribenes. And after that the cold fish and the meat from yesterday's tzimmes, and then the jellied calf's foot, or fisnoga as you call it, with thin slices of garlic, and after that the potato cholent with the kugel that had been in the oven all night—and you know what that smells like when you take it out of the oven and take the cover off the pot. And what it tastes like. Our visitor could not find words to praise it. So I tell him: 'This is still nothing. Wait until you have tasted our borscht tonight, then you'll know what good food is.' "

  Late on Saturday afternoon is shalosh seudot (third meal). The atmosphere contrasts with that of the rest of the day—the participants are saddened by the imminent departure of the Sabbath. The songs are slow and almost mournful. Shalosh seudot fare is generally simpler than that served at the other two Sabbath meals; it consists primarily of bread, cold fish, perhaps a few salads, and some leftover dessert. This meal is often held in the synagogue between the afternoon and evening services.

  The Sabbath departs with the Havdalah ritual: the lighting of a candle, a sniff of spice, and a blessing over a cup of wine. In the words of Isaac Bashevis Singer from In My Father's Court, (1966): "Our house was filled with the odor of burning wax, blessed spices, and with the atmosphere of wonder and miracles."

  On Saturday night following the Sabbath, many familes hold a party called melaveh malkah (literally "escorting the queen") by Ashkenazim and noche de Alhad (night of Sunday) by Sephardim. The Sabbath, metaphorically viewed as a queen, is symbolically escorted away at this gathering. In the process, the special feelings of the Sabbath are prolonged for a while longer. Of course, food, typically cold dishes and dairy, is an integral part of the event.

  (See also Adafina, Challah, Cholent/Schalet, Desayuno, Hamin, Hamotzi, Harisa, Kiddush, Melaveh Malkah, Schalet, Seudah, Shkanah, Tabyeet, and T'fina)

  Sabich

  Sabich is a laffa or pita sandwich with a filling of fried eggplant, hard-boiled egg, Israeli salad, and various sauces or pickles.

  Origin: Iraq

  Other names: sabeek.

  Among the foods introduced to Israel by Iraqis is sabich; the name probably derived from the Arabic sabah (morning). The sandwich is a combination of popular items from a traditional Iraqi Sabbath morning mezze (appetizer assortment), all wrapped in flatbread. Besides the fried eggplant and Israeli salad, the sandwich can include hummus, tahini (sesame seed paste), pickles, and amba (curried mango condiment) and/or s'chug or harissa (chili sauce). Some also add sliced potatoes. Sabich is not a bland sandwich—it is spicy.

  Sabich first appeared in Israel in the 1950s in the city of Ramat Gan, which had a large Iraqi population. Ramat Gan remains the area where it is most popular. By the turn of the twentieth century, sabich had become commonplace throughout the country and was frequently offered alongside falafel as an alternative sandwich. There exists a great deal of heated debate over which of several shops in Ramat Gan and adjacent Tel Aviv makes the best sabich. More recently, sabich came to America, where it is now featured in many New York City falafel and hummus restaurants.

  Sabra

  Sabra is Hebrew for cactus and its fruit (prickly pear). Cacti, a succulent fruit, are indigenous to the Americas. Upon reaching Israel in the nineteenth century, they soon become a familiar sight throughout the land, where they were frequently planted to serve as natural barriers and fences. In the April 18, 1931, issue of the Israeli newspaper Do'ar HaYom, journalist Uri Kesari penned an essay entitled "We Are the Leaves of the Sabra!" Subsequently, the word sabra became identified with native-born Israelis, who were regarded as this fruit—tough and prickly on the outside but sweet on the inside.

  Although not grown in Israel until the nineteenth century, the sabra (prickly pear)—tough on the outside and sweet inside—became the symbol of native Israelis.

  The fruit is usually eaten raw, although the many seeds make this a challenging task. After the fruit is mashed and the seeds are strained out, the pulp is used in sauces, vinaigrettes, sorbets, and ice cream.

  In 1963, the Bronfman family, then owners of the Seagram Company, decided to create a uniquely Israeli liqueur and developed one from local sabras. This flavor, however, failed to catch on, and by the following year a new version, retaining the same name, was created from chocolate and orang
e, inspired by the native Jaffa orange. This time the flavor proved very successful and Sabra liqueur joined the list of the world's best liqueurs.

  Sabzi

  Sabzi is the Farsi word for herbs. A distinctive feature of Persian cuisine is the use of mixed of fresh herbs to dishes such as salads (salada sabzi), soups (ash-e sabzi), stews (khoreshe sabzi), meatballs (kufteh sabzi), and omelets (kuku sabzi). These dishes are featured on Persian Jewish tables for Passover, Rosh Hashanah, and other special occasions.

  Sachlav

  Sachlav is a thick hot beverage and a thicker hot pudding made from ground orchid root.

  Origin: Eastern Mediterranean

  Other names: Arabic: sahlab; England: saloop; Greece: salepi; Turkey: salep.

  The tubers of orchids grow as a pair of small round globes, giving rise to the ancient Greek name for the plant, orchis (testicle), and, in the same vein, its Arabic name, sahlab, from the Arabic term hasyu al-thalab (fox testicles). Today, the whole dried orchid tubers are sold in some Middle Eastern markets, but they are predominantly found ground into a powder. Sahlab or, in Hebrew, sachlav, variously refers to the orchid plant itself, its ground bulbs, and several dishes made from them. When the powder is dissolved in a liquid, it acts as a stabilizer and thickener. Sachlav has a distinctive subtle earthy flavor.