Legislation from local to international levels can cap emissions and develop carbon offset trading.
Careful urban planning can increase the efficiency of transportation and energy use.
Planetary engineering could enact radical changes in technology, culture, or the biosphere.
Support of third world efforts to develop without adding greenhouse gases could improve global stability.
Every potential solution has costs and benefits which must be carefully considered; tradeoffs are necessary.
Review Questions
Explain the mechanism of the greenhouse effect.
Compare the effects of the greenhouse effect on Mars and Venus to that on Earth.
Define and quantify global warming.
Describe paleoclimatic changes over the course of Earth’s history. How are these data collected, when no one was around to measure temperatures?
Summarize the evidence for greenhouse gases as the cause of recent global warming.
Discuss the significance of global warming for Earth’s ecosystems.
Relate global warming to current global stability.
Connect the atmospheric gases that absorb the Earth’s thermal radiation to their sources.
Combustion of fossil fuels is a common denominator for many problems related to Atmospheric and Water Resources. Clarify the connections for as many problems as you are able.
Distinguish between and describe the importance to global warming prevention of carbon sequestration, carbon sinks, carbon offsets, emission caps, emissions trading, and carbon neutrality.
Further Reading / Supplemental Links
Robert Lee Hotz, Huge Dust Plume from China Cause Changes in Climate. Wall Street Journal Online, 20 July, 2007;
http://online.wsj.com/public/article/SB118470650996069354-buQPf_FL_nKirvopk__GzCmNOq8_20070818.html?mod=tff_main_tff_top.
NASA, The Greenhouse Effect. NASA Facts Online, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, NF-182 June 1993;
http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/service/gallery/fact_sheets/earthsci/green.htm.
http://www.ifm-geomar.de/fileadmin/personal/fb1/p-oz/mfrank/Bard_and_Frank_2006.pdf
http://www.dsri.dk/~hsv/prlresup2.pdf
http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/Report/AR4WG1_Print_Ch02.pdf;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/climate_change/index.cfm
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/index.html
http://www.crest.org/
http://www.eere.energy.gov/
Vocabulary
anthropogenic sources
Sources of pollution related to human activities.
carbon (CO2) sink
A reservoir which increases absorption of CO2 – e.g. a forest plantation.
carbon offsetting
Mitigating or reducing greenhouse gas emissions, often as a trade-off from one location to another.
carbon sequestration
Process which removes CO2 from the atmosphere.
carbon-neutral
Describes an individual, activity, industry, or a political unit which balances CO2 release with activities which sequester carbon.
emissions cap
Upper limit on CO2 (or other pollutant) release; may be tradable or sellable.
emissions trading
Reducing greenhouse emissions by purchasing or exchanging means of reducing CO2 in exchange for rights to release CO2 .
global warming
The recent increase in the Earth’s average near-surface and ocean temperatures.
greenhouse effect
The trapping by the atmosphere of heat energy radiated from the Earth’s surface.
greenhouse gas
Atmospheric substance which transmits solar radiation but absorbs infrared radiation: CO2, CH4 and NO, for example.
planetary engineering
Radical, often global changes in technology, culture, or the biosphere management.
runaway greenhouse effect
A positive feedback loop in which increasing temperature triggers the release of more greenhouse gases, which further increase temperature, which releases more gases.
Points to Consider
Do you think global warming is a good example of an “ecosystem service” – or perhaps a “ biosphere service?" Explain your reasoning.
How is the Greenhouse Effect both positive and negative?
Which of the suggestions for preventing climate change do you think are most realistic for you?
How might you, as an individual, contribute to national and international solutions to climate change?
How might we do a better job of building the costs of global warming into the economics of fossil fuel use, deforestation, agriculture, and cattle production?
Chapter 19: The Human Body
Lesson 19.1: Organization of the Human Body
Lesson Objectives
Describe the levels of organization of the human body.
Outline the role of a specialized cell.
Identify the properties that make body cells and stem cells different from each other.
List three types of stem cells.
Identify the four tissue types found in the human body.
Summarize how tissues and organs relate to each other.
Name two body systems that work together for a common purpose.
Introduction
In most multicellular organisms, not all cells are alike. For example, the cells that make up your skin are different from cells that make up your liver, your blood, or your eyes. Yet, all these specialized cells develop from one single fertilized egg which means all of your cells have the same DNA. But liver, blood, and eye cells are very different from each other in form and function. While these cells are specialized for a specific job, there are other cells in the body that remain unspecialized. These cells multiply continuously to replace the millions of different body cells that die and need to be replaced every day.
Cells
Cells are the most basic units of life in your body. Each specialized cell has a specific function in the body. For example, nerve cells transmit electrical messages around the body, and white blood cells patrol the body and attack invading bacteria. Other cells include specialized cells in the kidney (such as kidney glomerulus parietal cell), brain cells (such as astrocytes), stomach cells (such as parietal cells), and muscle cells (such as red and white skeletal muscle fibers). Cells group together in tissues to carry out a specific function, and different tissues work together to form organs. This grouping of cells and tissues is referred to as levels of organization. Complex multicellular organisms, which include flatworms and humans, have different levels of organization.
Differentiation
Every cell in the body originated from a single fertilized egg, which is called a zygote. The zygote divides many times to produce an embryo. These embryonic cells differentiate into many different cell types which in time give rise to all the cells types present in the body of all humans (and other mammals), from a new-born baby to an elderly adult. Differentiation is the process by which an unspecialized cell (such as a fertilized egg cell), divides many times to produce specialized cells that work together and make up the body. During differentiation, certain genes are turned on, or become activated, while other genes are switched off, or inactivated. This process is regulated by the cell. A differentiated cell will develop specific structures and perform certain functions.
A cell that is able to differentiate into all cell types within a body is called totipotent. They have “total potential” to differentiate into any cell type. In mammals, only the zygote and early embryonic cells are totipotent. A cell that is able to differentiate into many cell types, but not all, is called pluripotent. Such cells have “plural potential,” (but not “total potential”) to differentiate into most but not all cell types.
Figure 19.1
Division and differentiation of stem cells into specialized cells.
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br /> Stem Cells
An unspecialized cell that can divide many times and give rise to different, specialized cells is called a stem cell, as shown in Figure above. Zygotes and embryonic cells are both types of stem cells. The stem cells found in embryos can divide indefinitely, can specialize into any cell type and are called embryonic stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are totipotent. Undifferentiated cells that are found within the body and that divide to replace dying cells and damaged tissues are called adult stem cells. Adult stem cells can divide indefinitely, and generate all the cell types of the organ from which they originate. They can potentially re-grow the entire organ from just a few cells. A third type of stem cell is found in blood from the umbilical cord of a new-born baby, and the placenta. These "cord blood stem cells" are considered to be adult stem cells because they cannot generate all body cell types, just different types of blood cells. Therefore, adult stem cells and cord blood stem cells are pluripotent.
Stem Cells in Medicine
Stem cells are of great interest to researchers because of their ability to divide indefinitely, and to differentiate into many cell types. Stem cells have many existing or potential therapeutic applications. Such therapies include treatments for cancer, blood disorders, brain or spinal cord injuries, and blindness.
Figure 19.2
Human embryonic stem cell colony, which was grown in a laboratory on a feeder layer of mouse cells. Embryonic stem cells are totipotent. A video of human embryonic stem cell and their uses is available at An animation of stem cell procedures is available at
Embryonic stem cells, as shown in Figure above, are taken from eggs that were fertilized in the laboratory and donated to research. They may have the greatest potential because they are totipotent, and thus have the most potential medical applications. However, embryonic stem cells harvested from a donated embryo differ from a potential patient’s tissue type. Therefore, just as in organ transplantation, there is a risk of a patient’s body rejecting transplanted embryonic stem cells. Some individuals and groups have objections to the harvesting of embryonic stem cells, because harvesting the stem cells involves the destruction of the embryo. Some researchers are looking into methods to extract embryonic stem cells without destroying the actual embryo. Other researchers have claimed success in harvesting embryonic stem cells from the embryonic fluid that surrounds a growing fetus.
Adult stem cells, including cord blood stem cells, have already been used to treat diseases of the blood such as sickle-cell anemia and certain types of cancer. Unlike embryonic stem cells, the use of adult stem cells in research and therapy is not controversial because the production of adult stem cells does not require the destruction of an embryo. Adult stem cells can be isolated from a tissue sample, such as bone marrow, from a person. Scientists have recently discovered more sources of adult stem cells in the body. Adult stem cells have been found in body fat, the inside lining of the nose, and in the brain. Some researchers are investigating ways to revert adult stem cells back to a totipotent stage.
Tissues
A tissue is a group of connected cells that have a similar function within an organism. The simplest living multicellular organisms, sponges, are made of many specialized types of cells that work together for a common goal. Such cell types include digestive cells, tubular pore cells, and epidermal cells. Though the different cell types create a large organized, multicellular structure—the visible sponge—they are not organized into true tissues. If a sponge is broken up by passing it through a sieve, the sponge will reform on the other side.
More complex organisms such as jellyfish, coral, and sea anemones have a tissue level of organization. For example, jellyfish have tissues that have separate protective, digestive, and sensory functions. There are four basic types of tissue in the body of all animals, including the human body. These make up all the organs, structures and other contents of the body. Figure below shows an example of each tissue type.
The four basic types of tissue are:
Epithelial tissue is made up of layers of tightly packed cells that line the surfaces of the body for protection, secretion, and absorption. Examples of epithelial tissue include the skin, the lining of the mouth and nose, and the lining of the digestive system.
Muscle tissue is made up of cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. There are three types of muscle tissue: smooth muscle which is found in the inner linings of organs; skeletal muscle, which is attached to bone and moves the body; and cardiac muscle which is found only in the heart.
Nervous tissue is made up of the nerve cells (neurons) that together form the nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord.
Connective tissue is made up of many different types of cells that are all involved in structure and support of the body. Bone, blood, fat, and cartilage are all connective tissues. Connective tissue can be densely packed together, as bone cells are, or loosely packed, as adipose tissue (fat cells) are.
Figure 19.3
(a) Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) image of lung trachea epithelial tissue, (b) Transmission electron micrograph (TEM) image of skeletal muscle tissue, (c) Light microscope image of neurons of nervous tissue, (d) red blood cells, a connective tissue.
Organs and Organ Systems
Organs are the next level of organization in the body. An organ is a structure made of two or more tissues that work together for a common purpose. Skin, the largest organ in the body, is shown in Figure below. Organs can be as primitive as the brain of a flatworm (a group of nerve cells), as large as the stem of a sequoia (up to 90 meters in height (300 feet)), or as complex as a human liver. The human body has many different organs, such as the heart, the kidneys, the pancreas, and the skin. Two or all of the tissue types can be found in an organ. Organs inside the body are called internal organs. The internal organs collectively are often called viscera.
Figure 19.4
Your skin is the largest organ in your body. In this cross section image of skin, the four different tissue types (epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscle tissues) can be seen working together.
The most complex organisms have organ systems. An organ system is a group of organs that act together to carry out complex interrelated functions, with each organ focusing on a part of the task. An example of an organ system is the human digestive system in which the mouth and esophagus ingests food, the stomach crushes and liquefies it, the pancreas and gall bladder make and release digestive enzymes, and the intestines absorb nutrients into the blood. An organ can be part of more than one organ system. For example the ovaries produce hormones which make them a part of the endocrine system. The ovaries also make eggs which makes them part of the reproductive system. One of the most important functions of organ systems is to provide cells with oxygen and nutrients and removes toxic waste products such as carbon dioxide. A number of organ systems, including the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, work together to do this.
The different organ systems of the body are shown in Table below. Sometimes the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system are grouped together into one single system called the circulatory system.
Major Organ Systems of the Human Body Organ System Function Organs, Tissues, and Structures Involved
Cardiovascular Transporting oxygen, nutrients and other substances to the body cells, and wastes, carbon dioxide, and other substances away from cells; it can also help stabilize body temperature and pH Heart, blood, blood vessels
Lymphatic Defense against infection and disease, transfer of lymph between tissues and the blood stream Lymph, lymph nodes, lymph vessels
Digestive Processing of foods and absorption of nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and water Salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine
Endocrine Communication within the body with hormones; directing long-term change over other organ systems to maintain homeostasis Among many, the pituitary gland, pineal gland
, thyroid, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, testes, and ovaries
Integumentary Protection from injury and fluid loss; physical defense against infection by microorganisms; temperature control Skin, hair, and nails
Muscular Movement, support, heat production Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles, tendons
Nervous Collecting, transferring and processing information; directing short-term change over other organ systems in order to maintain homeostasis Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs (eyes, ears, tongue, skin, nose)
Reproductive Production of gametes (sex cells) and sex hormones; production of offspring Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, ovaries, mammary glands, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis
Respiratory Delivery of air to sites where gas exchange can occur between the blood and cells (around body) or blood and air (lungs) Mouth, nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm
Skeletal Support and protection of soft tissues of body; movement at joints; production of blood cells; mineral storage Bones, cartilage, ligaments
Urinary Removal of excess water, salts, and waste products from blood and body; control of pH Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
Immune Defending against microbial pathogens (disease-causing agents) and other diseases Leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids, thymus, and spleen
Lesson Summary
Not all cells are alike in a multicellular organism, but all of the cells in a multicellular organism have the same DNA.
CK-12 Biology I - Honors Page 90
