The 1980s also saw the rise of the neo-liberal thinking which argued that governments should liberalize their economies in favour of the laissez-faire paradigm, which encompassed (and indeed acknowledged the importance of) the private market. The experience of the newly industrializing economies of Asia gave these market-based ideas a popularity boost in policy circles in the United States and Europe. The Asian tigers seemed to have achieved high growth rates and unprecedented poverty reduction with free-market policies and an outward orientation. As free-market proponents, Milton Friedman and the Chicago School of Economics had great influence on the policies and thinking of the US President, Ronald Reagan, and the UK’s Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher. The policies that ensued (Reaganomics and Thatcherism) bore all the hallmarks of an economic revolution, and there was little room for compromise; so too in Africa, where these free-market polices were packaged and sold as the new development agenda.
In Africa, as with other parts of the developing world, this economic overhaul necessitated two new aid-based programmes: first, stabilization, and then structural adjustment. Stabilization meant reducing a country’s imbalances to reasonable levels – for example, the government’s fiscal position and the country’s import–export ratio. Meanwhile structural adjustment was aimed at encouraging greater trade liberalization and reducing price and structural rigidities by such means as removing subsidies.
Both the World Bank and the IMF launched aggressive aid programmes to institute these two initiatives; the IMF’s Structural Adjustment and Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facilities are examples of these. Poor governments received cash in the form of budgetary support, and in return agreed to embrace the free-market solutions to development. This would entail minimizing the role of the state, privatizing previously nationalized industries, liberalizing trade and dramatically reducing the civil service. Between 1986 and 1996, for example, six African countries – Benin, the Central African Republic, Guinea, Madagascar, Mali and Uganda – shed more than 10 per cent of their civil service workforce.4 The privatization of African state-owned enterprises across all sectors (no sector sacred – manufacturing and industry, agriculture, tourism, services, trade, transport, financial, energy, mining, water, electricity and telecommunications) meant the government stake of corporate equity fell from almost 90 per cent to just 10 per cent ownership in six years. The free markets gave African economies the freedom to succeed, but also the freedom to fail. In Zambia, for instance, an aggressive privatization programme saw the closure of the country’s national airline carrier, Zambia Airways.5
From the start of the debt crisis in 1982, IMF flows rose from US$8 billion to US$12 billion in 1983. With the onset and resolution of the debt crisis in the 1980s, poverty-related aid flows subsided, tilting in favour of stabilization and structural adjustment packages (together known as programme aid). Since the 1980s the World Bank’s share of adjustment-related lending has averaged between 20 and 25 per cent of its total disbursements. During the 1980s bilateral flows also became more concessional in nature and by the early 1990s over 90 per cent were grants.
Alongside rising government-to-government transfers (bilateral aid), multilateral institutions continued their aggressive march towards gaining greater importance – both in terms of the volume of aid disbursed and as architects of development policy. By 1989, the Washington Consensus (a standard reform package of economic policy prescriptions, mainly on monetary and fiscal policy for the countries most affected by economic crisis) became the backbone of the development strategy pursued by the Washington DC-based institutions (the IMF, World Bank, and US Treasury Department).
The foreign aid agenda of the 1990s: a question of governance
By the end of the 1980s, emerging-market countries’ debt was at least US$1 trillion, and the cost of servicing these obligations colossal. Indeed, the cost became so substantial that it eventually dwarfed foreign aid going into poor countries – leading to a net reverse flow from poor countries to rich to the tune of US$15 billion every year between 1987 and 1989. From a development point of view, this was absurd. Were it not for the tragic consequences, it would be farcical. Africa’s economic growth had been in a steady decline, poverty levels were on the rise and the stench of rampant corruption was growing ever more pungent. (After his meeting with President Reagan, Zaire’s President Mobutu Sese Seko had asked for easier terms to service the country’s US$5 billion debt; he then promptly leased Concorde to fly his daughter to her wedding in the Ivory Coast.6
This backdrop, seen by many as the spectacular crash of the aid-based development model, set the tone for the policy shifts of much of the 1990s. Having seen the failure of fifty years of competing aid interventions, donors now laid the blame for Africa’s economic woes at the door of political leadership and weak institutions.
While much of Asia and Latin America was firmly back on a growth path, with issues of economic instability behind it, many African countries stagnated, and in some of the worst cases economically regressed.
It was around this time that the donor community converged on the idea that governance – good governance, needed for sustainable economic growth – was lacking across much of sub-Saharan Africa. Good governance was a euphemism for strong and credible institutions, transparent rule of law and economies free of rampant corruption. Also around this time, geopolitically, the world had been undergoing a transformation of its own, a transformation that would have far-reaching implications for Africa and the aid agenda for the continent.
Throughout the latter half of the twentieth century and up until the 1990s, the Cold War had provided richer countries with the political imperative to give aid monies even to the most corrupt and venal despots in Africa. One of the features of the Cold War was the West’s ability and eagerness to support, bankroll and prop up a swathe of pathological and downright dangerous dictators. From Idi Amin in the east, to Mobutu Sese Seko in the west, from Ethiopia’s Mengistu to Liberia’s Samuel Doe, the competition among these leaders to be more brutal to their people, more spendthrift, more indifferent to their country’s needs than their neighbours were, was matched only by the willingness of international donors to give them the money to realize their dreams. Bokassa’s coronation as Emperor of the Central African Empire in 1977 alone cost US$22 million.7 Across many African states, corruption was running at epidemic levels. In 1996, among fifty-four countries around the world, Nigeria was ranked the most corrupt nation, scoring a dismal 0.69 out of 10 on corruption rankings.8
Despite this corrupt environment, everyone continued to lend. In answer to mounting criticism of raging crooked, shady and fraudulent practices, donors offered qualifications. For example, the World Bank pledged continued aid support, with the proviso that aid monies must also target governance reform, with the aim of improving the civil service and government bureaucracy (through teaching skills, transparency and institutional reform).
Governance remains at the heart of aid today. Whether this aid strategy has any long-term effects, however, remains an open question. Have Africans been trained in ethics and good governance at Western universities? Yes. Have radical reforms aimed at improving transparency and efficiency been implemented? Yes, at least on paper. But it is debatable whether these initiatives have any real bite in countries which still opt to be dependent on aid.
Alongside governance emerged the West’s growing obsession with democracy for the developing world. The installation of democracy was the donor’s final refuge; the last-ditch attempt to show that aid interventions could work, would work, if only the political conditions were right. The 1960s’ growth agenda had failed to deliver growth and reduce poverty; as had the 1970s’ emphasis on the poor, and the 1980s’ focus on economic stabilization and adjustment. So after three decades of aid-centric development models, it was left to Western democracy to save the day. In its essence, democracy was perceived to be the way in which countries could grow and develop; and if the democratic ethos and institutions were tran
splanted to African states, then these countries would finally begin to prosper. Democracy was the ultimate key.
Democracy, real liberal democracy, means political representatives are chosen through elections that are open, free and fair; where virtually all adults possess the right to vote; where civil and political liberties are broadly protected; and where elected authorities are not subject to the tutelary control of military or clerical leaders. For the West, the process of open and fair elections had taken centuries to evolve, but the hope was that (coupled with aid) shoe-horning democracy into underdeveloped nations would guarantee that African countries would see a sudden change in their economic and political fortunes. Yet, as discussed later, it would soon become clear that any improvements in Africa’s economic profile have been largely achieved in spite of (nominal) democracy, not because of it.9
By the end of the Cold War in 1991, the USSR was no longer a tangible threat, and China had not yet appeared as a protagonist in Africa’s development story. So whereas in the past the aid policy had, to a great extent, been governed by Cold War demands, Western donors were now no longer bound by such political considerations. The Soviet Union had, on average, disbursed US$300 million a year to Africa (58 per cent went to Ethiopia), but after the break-up of the union this amount would almost certainly have fallen considerably. Donors could now pick and choose, when, why and to whom they doled out aid – if at all.
Where foreign aid is concerned, the 1990s were characterized by two themes. First, there was the dominance of multilateral agencies, such as the World Bank and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), as the leading aid donors; their share of multilateral giving rose from 23 per cent in the 1970s to 30 per cent in the early 1990s. Much of the official flow of aid was on a concessional basis, with grants constituting more than 90 per cent of total official assistance by 1996 – up from 60 per cent twenty years earlier.
Second, there was the onset of donor fatigue in the latter part of the decade. With the geopolitical rationale for giving aid gone, the amount of aid to Africa dwindled dramatically. In the early 1990s, official donor aid (excluding emergency aid and debt relief) to Africa averaged US$15 billion a year, compared to around US$5 billion a year in the 1970s. Having accounted for more than 60 per cent on average of total cash to the continent (net disbursements) during the 1987–92 period (peaking in 1990 at 70 per cent), the share of official foreign aid steadily declined to a little more than 30 per cent of disbursements between 1993 and 1997. Similarly the net official development assistance (ODA – the donors’ term for official aid) disbursements as a share of donor GNP fell from 0.38 per cent in 1982 to 0.22 per cent in 1997. For many developing countries (mainly in Asia and Latin America) private flows had largely replaced aid flows, rising from 26 per cent in 1987–92 to 55 per cent in 1993–7.
However, unlike other emerging zones, sub-Saharan Africa did not witness a concomitant rise in private capital inflows as aid flows declined. Despite the decline in net aid flows to Africa over the 1990s, net disbursements at the end of the period were still larger than in 1987, and, furthermore, foreign aid continued (and continues to this day) to be the predominant source of financial resources for much of the continent. In some cases in Africa, aid still represented as much as 90 per cent of net disbursements between 1987 and 1996.
So there had been a marked upward trend in the real value of foreign assistance from the 1960s; this peaked in 1992, and since then aid volumes have fallen. Africa’s total net ODA has declined from a high of US$17 billion to US$12 billion in 1999.
During the 1990s another view was also emerging about Africa’s failure to develop. Aside from an absence of quality governance and of free and fair democratic process, and the emergence of endemic corruption, there was a sense from some quarters that if only Africa could be released from its yoke of debt in one fell swoop, it could finally achieve that elusive goal – economic prosperity. It was debt that was holding Africa back. And in that sense it was the West’s fault, as it was the West to whom Africa owed billions. Morality – Western, liberal, guilt-tripped morality – seeped into the development equation. Soon everyone would join in.
The foreign aid agenda of the 2000s:
the rise of glamour aid
In 2000, Africa became the focus of orchestrated world-wide pity, and not for the first time. The Nigerian humanitarian catastrophe of Biafra in 1971 (the same year as the Beatle George Harrison’s Concert for Bangladesh) had demanded that the world respond to human catastrophe. Consciousness was raised several notches with Bob Geldof’s 13 July 1985 Live Aid Concert where, with 1.5 billion people watching, public discourse became a public disco.
Live Aid had not only been triumphant in bringing Africa’s plight to the wider public; it also trumpeted an era of morality. In the run-up to the new millennium, crusades like the Jubilee Debt Campaign capitalized on people’s desperate desire to be a part of something that would give aid and development policy another dimension. African leaders such as Tanzania’s President Mkapa later encapsulated the feeling of the day in his speech at the Jubilee Debt Campaign Conference in February 2005, calling it a ‘scandal that we are forced to choose between basic health and education for our people and repaying historical debt’.
Thus, the way was paved for the army of moral campaigners – the pop stars, the movie stars, new philanthropists and even Pope John Paul II – to carve out niches for themselves, as they took on the fight for more, not less, aid to be sent to Africa, even after billions of dollars of debt were cancelled – in essence, cancelling debt on the one hand, and replacing it with a swathe of new aid, and thus the prospect of fresh debt all over again, with the other. The aid campaigners capitalized on the success of raising cash for emergency aid, and extended it to a platform to raise development aid; something entirely different.
In more recent times, the Irish musician Bono has made his case directly to the US President, George Bush, in a White House visit in October 2005, and Bob Geldof was a guest at the 2005 G8 meeting in Gleneagles, Scotland, and advised the UK’s Commission to Africa. It would appear, despondent with their record of failure, that Western donors are increasingly looking to anyone for guidance on how best to tackle Africa’s predicament.
Scarcely does one see Africa’s (elected) officials or those African policymakers charged with the development portfolio offer an opinion on what should be done, or what might actually work to save the continent from its regression. This very important responsibility has, for all intents and purposes, and to the bewilderment and chagrin of many an African, been left to musicians who reside outside Africa. One disastrous consequence of this has been that honest, critical and serious dialogue and debate on the merits and demerits of aid have atrophied. As one critic of the aid model remarked, ‘my voice can’t compete with an electric guitar’.
At the end of it all, it is virtually impossible to draw on Africa’s aid-led development experience and argue that aid has worked. The broadest consequences of the aid model have been ruinous. Rwanda’s President Paul Kagame put it most simply: ‘The primary reason [that there is little to show for the more than US$300 billion of aid that has gone to Africa since 1970] is that in the context of post-Second World War geopolitical and strategic rivalries and economic interests, much of this aid was spent on creating and sustaining client regimes of one type or another, with minimal regard to developmental outcomes on our continent.’10
Donors, development agencies and policymakers have, by and large, chosen to ignore the blatant alarm signals, and have continued to pursue the aid-based model even when it has become apparent that aid, under whatever guise, is not working. Even when aid has not been stolen, it has been unproductive. The proof of the pudding is in the eating, and ever so clearly the preponderance of evidence is on this side. Given Africa’s current economic state it is hard to see how any growth registered is a direct result of aid. If anything, the evidence of the last fifty years points to the reverse – slower growth, higher p
overty and Africa left off the economic ladder.
We meant well
More than US$2 trillion of foreign aid has been transferred from rich countries to poor over the past fifty years – Africa the biggest recipient, by far. Yet regardless of the motivation for aid-giving – economic, political or moral – aid has failed to deliver the promise of sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction. At every turn of the development tale of the last five decades, policymakers have chosen to maintain the status quo and furnish Africa with more aid.
Aid has not lived up to expectations. It remains at the heart of the development agenda, despite the fact that there are very compelling reasons to show that it perpetuates the cycle of poverty and derails sustainable economic growth. Paul Kagame rightly also laments that ‘While more than US$300 billion in aid has apparently been disbursed to our continent since 1970, there is little to show for it in terms of economic growth and human development.’11
Aid is not working. And here’s why.
3. Aid Is Not Working
Consider this: in the past forty years at least a dozen developing countries have experienced phenomenal economic growth. Many of these, mostly Asian, countries have grown by almost 10 per cent of GDP per year, surpassing the growth rates of leading industrialized economies, and significantly reducing poverty. In some instances, poorer countries have leap-frogged the per capita income levels of leading developed economies, and this trend is set to continue: by some estimates, star emerging-market performers such as Brazil, Russia, India and China are projected to exceed the economic growth rates of nearly all industrialized economies by the year 2050. Yet, over the same period, as many as thirty other developing countries, mainly aid-dependent in sub-Saharan Africa, have failed to generate consistent economic growth, and have even regressed.
Dead Aid: Why Aid Is Not Working and How There Is a Better Way for Africa Page 4
