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INDEX
Note: Bold page numbers refer to figures and tables.
Abbott, Andrew, 13–14, 258n8
Actor Network Theory (ANT), 156
Agnew, C. R., 135
Alabama, repeal of medical licensing laws, 68
allopathic/regular physicians: and authoritative testimony, 46–47, 48, 49, 53, 58, 64, 67, 244; authority of, 6, 7, 21, 45–46, 47, 58, 70, 72, 91–92, 137, 154, 162, 165, 168, 178, 179, 180, 189, 195–96, 212, 219, 238, 242; and biomedical model, 7; and boards of health, 113, 115–16, 128–29, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138–47; and class differences, 136–37; debates with alternative medical movements, 12, 17, 19, 23–24, 48, 51–54, 57, 67, 80, 227, 261n3, 261n6; defeat of epistemic challengers, 21–22; and democratic ideals, 5, 29, 107, 108; and discovery narratives, 28, 157–58; as dominant sect of physicians, 1, 4–5, 257n1; and education reforms, 210; effect of cholera epidemics on, 1, 2, 19, 21, 23, 26, 36–37, 39, 45, 47, 49, 71; and empiricism, 40, 42, 43, 47, 84, 85, 170–71, 190; and epistemic contests, 26–27, 39, 67, 70, 85, 94, 96, 98, 106, 107, 113, 153, 156, 158, 179, 180, 181, 189, 224, 227, 233, 238, 242; homeopaths’ relationship with, 21, 26, 27, 28, 55, 57, 67, 77, 79, 80, 81, 87, 93, 96, 97–100, 101, 102, 106, 113, 135, 164, 179, 213, 215, 225, 245, 262n6; internal tensions of, 37, 40, 42–48, 83, 167, 210, 211; and Koch’s findings, 151, 154, 165–67, 171, 179, 181; and laboratory analysis, 210, 239, 243–44, 246; and legitimate knowledge, 45, 46; and medical epistemology, 42, 45–48, 80, 83–84, 88, 90–93, 100, 106, 191–96, 224–25, 243; and medical licensing laws, 59–60; narrative of emergent discovery, 165–67, 171, 177, 178, 179, 181, 225–26; and Paris School, 83–85, 101, 171, 172; professional identity of, 194, 221, 223, 229; and proto-empiricism, 44–45, 47, 83; and public health, 115, 116, 128, 129, 136–37, 140, 145, 211, 212; and quantification, 89; and radical empiricism, 27, 80, 85–90, 92–94, 98, 100–102, 106–7, 125, 165–67, 181, 189, 191–92, 225, 233, 244, 262n3; and rationalism, 37, 40, 42–47, 83, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 93, 191, 224–25, 233, 244, 262n6; reaction to cholera epidemics, 32–35, 40–42, 48, 49, 53–54, 74, 76, 77–78, 79, 90; and sanitary interventions, 27, 124, 128, 135–36; and sense of status, 45; and state legislatures, 1, 26, 38–39, 59–60, 70–71, 96, 145–46, 189, 208, 213, 218, 226, 233, 236, 243; styles of reasoning, 59
alternative medical movements: on allopathic physicians, 4–5, 257n1; contributions of, 5, 49; debates with allopathic/regular physicians, 12, 17, 19, 23–24, 48, 51–54, 57, 67, 80, 227, 261n3, 261n6; dismissing of, 6; and education reform, 216, 217; emergence of, 26; endurance of, 238; and epistemic closure, 238; and epistemic contests, 21, 22, 26, 37–39, 48, 49, 59, 70, 71–72, 73, 80, 85, 224, 227, 230, 233, 235, 243; and epistemological change, 234–35; epistemologies of, 63, 64–67, 218, 234; government inclusion of, 4, 93, 102–5, 213, 234, 262–63n7; identification with science, 258n5; and repeal of licensing laws, 1, 68–69; and state legislatures, 1, 68–69, 70, 71, 213, 218, 224, 233. See also homeopaths and homeopathy; Thomsonism
American Institute of Homeopathy (AIH), 95, 125, 163, 164–65
American Medical Association (AMA): and boards of health, 212; Code of Ethics, 96–97, 98, 99, 101, 214; and education reform, 80, 95, 103–4, 205, 207, 216; and epistemic closure, 108, 238, 246; and epistemological problem of adjudication, 80, 81, 94, 95, 98, 100, 106, 225, 233; as exclusive, 27, 95–98, 100, 102–7, 145, 213, 244; goals of, 80–81; and no consultation clause, 96, 98, 101, 103–4, 105, 106, 143, 144, 214, 225, 233; opposition to government oversight of medical practice, 4, 26, 29, 102, 189, 212, 236–38, 243, 265n5; and organizational infrastructure, 8, 80, 81–83, 95, 100, 102, 106–8, 225, 226, 233, 243, 257n3; and professional power, 2, 13, 22, 26, 95, 108, 135, 137, 226–27, 236; and quackery, 95–97, 98, 99–102, 105, 106, 214, 225; regional character of, 262n5; and Rockefeller Foundation, 227, 236; Statement of Principles, 214; strategy of non-dialogue, 29, 102, 217; and thought collective, 107; and truth-wins-out narratives, 8. See also allopathic/regular physicians
American Medical Times, 136
American Public Health Association (APHA), 135
animacular theory, 91–92
anticommunist ideology, and health insurance, 237
antiseptics, 239
Aristotle, 252
Army Medical Board, 104, 105
atmospheric theories, 92, 160
auscultation, 84
authority: of allopathic/regular physicians, 6, 7, 21, 45–46, 47, 58, 70, 72, 91–92, 137, 154, 162, 165, 168, 178, 179, 180, 189, 195–96, 212, 219, 238, 242; challenges to, 48–49, 62; and medical professionalization, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12–13, 28, 37–39, 45, 185, 213–14, 219, 226, 236. See also epistemic authority
autopsy, 84
Bacon, Francis, 58
bacteriological paradigm: and allopathic/regular physicians, 2, 21, 22, 151, 154, 157, 158, 161, 162, 165, 166–67, 171, 177–78, 179, 180, 182, 18
3, 189; and cholera epidemics, 7, 24–26, 148, 149, 150, 151, 183, 187–88, 189, 224, 240, 260n20; and definition of disease, 13, 193, 240; and diagnostic testing, 189; and epistemic closure, 217; and Gates, 200–201; and German-American network, 154, 156, 158, 171–73, 176–77, 179; and homeopathy, 157, 161, 162, 163, 164, 180, 181, 215; and Koch’s findings, 152, 154, 157, 158, 166–71, 172, 178, 179, 180, 183, 192; and medical authority, 21, 24, 191; and medical education, 28, 194, 203; and medical professionalization, 191, 195, 208, 258n5; and Progressive Era, 258n5; and promissory practice, 158, 168–71; and public health, 152, 169–70, 195, 240–41; and quarantine measures, 184, 185, 186; and truth-wins-out narrative, 6, 7, 9, 24, 239; and vaccines, 24; and Welch, 167, 172, 176, 186. See also laboratory analysis
Baker, Jean H., 62
Barker, Fordyce, 128–29
Bartlett, Elisha, 86–87, 88, 89
Bartley, Horatio, Illustrations of Cholera Asphyxia, 35, 35
Bates, Joseph, 68
Behring, Emil von, 239
Bell, John, 96
Bellevue Hospital, New York, 172
Berlant, Jeffrey Lionel, 257n3
Biggar, Henry, 197, 202, 203
Biggs, Hermann, 176, 184, 186, 202
Billings, F. S., 165–66, 168
biomedical research, and clinical practice, 210, 251–52
Bismarck, Otto von, 149
bloodletting, 1, 23, 41, 43, 50, 53, 234
boards of health: alerting public to cholera, 34; and allopathic/regular physicians, 113, 115–16, 128–29, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138–47; and bacteriological paradigm, 183, 185, 188; debates on cholera, 26; debates on composition of, 4, 77, 212, 225; and epistemic contests, 112–14, 115, 135, 146, 147, 189; and laboratory analysis, 183, 184, 185, 188, 208, 211–12; organizational infrastructure of, 179; permanent boards of health, 132–35; and plumbers, 115, 137–40, 147, 225; and political issues, 16, 115, 126–29, 130, 131–32, 147, 188; and sanitary movement, 110–11, 225; and sanitary surveys, 122
Bossey, P., 48
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal: on cholera’s symptoms, 31–32; on cholera’s transmission, 73; debates over cholera in, 254; on quacks, 67; and therapeutic treatment of cholera, 33, 36–37, 48
Boston Thomsonian and Lady’s Companion, 51
Boston Thomsonian Manual, 54, 63
Bosworth, Joseph S., 143
boundary work: and credibility contests, 17, 259n15; as cultural practice, 82, 232; and legitimacy for ideas, 14; organizations’ role in, 94, 96–97, 101, 106, 214, 262n2
Briggs, Charles, 240
Britain: cholera in, 32; government health care insurance in, 265n5; and Koch’s findings, 159, 183; and laboratory analysis, 231; and medical professionalization, 230; and quarantines, 150; universities as model for American medical education, 204
British Medical Journal, 150
Bronson, Henry, 2–4
Brown, E. Richard, 197, 235
Cameron (New York physician), 33
Carnegie, Andrew, 200
Carnegie Foundation, 173, 205–6
Carnegie Report, 205–6
Catholic Church, 252–53
Chapin, Charles, 211–12
Chapman, Nathaniel, 95
Chinese medicine, 251
chiropractors, 213
cholera: anticholera inoculations, 183, 184; Bronson on, 2–4; debates over, 11, 17, 26, 40–42, 45, 47, 48, 74, 125, 188, 189, 254–56; definition of, 3, 28, 31, 39–40, 116, 136, 146, 183, 189, 195, 217, 223–24, 225, 241–42; diagnosis of, 31, 32, 41, 90, 168, 169; discoveries in history of, 7, 148–51; epistemological crisis of, 19, 39–40, 73–74; etiology of, 7, 25, 26, 57, 91–93, 116, 124; in Europe, 31–33, 148, 183, 260n1; faces of, from Horatio Bartley, 35, 35; as filth, 113, 116–26, 136, 137, 146, 185, 195, 225; incubation period of, 186; in India, 149, 166, 167, 181, 260n1; Koch’s finding of cholera microbe, 3, 6, 7, 27–28, 149–52, 171, 176, 178–79, 189, 221, 225–26, 239, 263n1; myths of, 77, 262n1; in New York City, 33–35, 36, 74, 110–12; Osler on, 3–4; physical reality of, 24; study of, 23, 240–41; symptoms of, 1, 24–25, 31–32, 33, 35; therapeutic interventions for, 1, 32, 33, 36–37, 41–42, 45, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54, 74, 77–78, 79, 90–91, 102, 224, 261n4; translocal character of, 47; transmission of, 41, 73, 224; and transportation, 33, 47, 74, 76
cholera epidemics: allopathic/regular physicians’ reactions to, 32–35, 40–42, 48, 49, 53–54, 74, 76, 77–78, 79, 90; and bacteriological paradigm, 7, 24–26, 148, 149, 150, 151, 183, 187–88, 189, 224, 240, 260n20; broadside of New York City Medical Council, 74, 75; counting of, 26, 260n18; effect on allopathic/regular physicians, 1, 2, 19, 21, 23, 26, 36–37, 39, 45, 47, 49, 71; and epistemic contests, 22–23, 26, 59, 73, 78, 79–80, 217, 224; mortality rate of, 1, 2, 24, 31, 32, 35, 49, 57, 73, 74, 76–77, 112, 115, 117, 121–22, 188; New York City Medical Council’s actions against, 74–76; and sanitary interventions, 23, 25, 74–75, 90, 109, 112, 185, 187–88, 240–41; spread of, 35–36
cholera nests, 123–24, 131, 134
Christian Advocate Journal, 77
chronic fatigue syndrome, 252
Citizens’ Association of New York, 130, 131
Civil War, 104–5, 106, 109, 190, 262–63n7
Cleveland, Grover, 183
clinical practice: and biomedical research, 210, 251–52; and laboratory analysis, 219
cognitive awakening, 157–58
Coleman, William, 263n1
Collins, Lottie, 187
comma bacillus: Biggs’s and Prudden’s isolation of, 176; and definition of cholera, 3, 149, 160, 186, 189; and Koch’s findings, 177, 192, 221, 239, 263n2; and laboratory analysis, 185, 192; Pettenkofer’s swallowing of, 159, 178
common sense: and germ theory, 159; and homeopathy, 99; and Jacksonian democracy, 62, 63, 64, 65; and Koch’s findings, 179; and medical epistemology, 194; and Thomsonism, 51, 52–53, 61, 63, 65
Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM), 238, 251
concept formation, in sociological research, 259n13
Connecticut, 262n5
contagion theories, 7, 77, 91–92, 118, 121, 124, 161
contested illnesses, 252
contingent contagionism, 91, 124
Cooper, Peter, 130
corporations, 196, 199–200, 235–36
Council of Hygiene and Public Health, 130–32
Council on Medical Education (CME), 205–6, 207
credibility contests, 17, 232, 249, 259n15, 259–60n16
CTX phage, 25
cultural factors: culture as practice, 257–58n4; and discovery, 156; and epistemic contests, 18, 20, 71, 82, 106, 107, 232, 250; and institutional production of knowledge, 38; in medical professionalization, 8–9, 234; norms of trust, 14; and role of discoveries, 28. See also democratic cultures
dehydration, and cholera, 24, 25, 261n4
de Kruif, Paul, 221, 264–65n1, 265n3
Deloney, Edward, 49
democratic ideals: and American Medical Association, 107; and challenges to authority, 48–49; and epistemic closure, 218, 224, 242, 246; and epistemology, 62, 63, 243; and expert knowledge, 26–30, 146, 190, 219–20, 242–46; and homeopaths’ rhetoric, 54–59, 63–65, 79, 87, 107, 213, 215, 218, 261–62n10; and values, 5, 29, 61–62, 107, 108, 200; and mapping of cholera, 119; and medical epistemologies, 38, 50–59, 61, 66–68, 69, 70, 71, 79, 195, 196, 218–19, 230, 242; and medical professionalization, 26, 242–46; and private philanthropy, 200, 219; and radical empiricism, 87, 102, 107; and religion, 49; and role of professions, 5, 26, 29, 242, 243, 244–45, 258n9; and science, 244, 266n9; and Thomsonism’s democratization of medical knowledge, 50–54, 59, 63, 64–65, 69, 87, 261–62n10. See also lay public
Democratic Party, 61, 62, 63, 129, 130
democratization: and American culture, 48, 49, 190, 258n9; and medical knowledge, 38, 39, 54, 55, 59, 61, 63, 64, 68, 71, 80, 86,87, 119, 217–20, 243; and state legislatures, 61–63, 224
Descartes, René, 16
de Tocqueville, Alexis, 58, 62
> diagnosis: of cholera, 31, 32, 41, 90, 168, 169; and laboratory analysis, 184, 189, 194, 195, 209, 239; and patient/doctor relationship, 195, 219
Dickens, Charles, 33, 75
diffusion model, of epistemology, 5–6, 152
diphtheria, 7, 24, 176, 180, 239
discovery: allopathic/regular physicians’ narrative of emergent discovery, 165–67, 171, 177, 178, 179, 181, 225–26; attribution model of, 154, 155–58, 178; and construction of narratives, 157; and epistemic authority, 153, 155–56; and germ theory, 156, 158; homeopaths’ narrative of prediscovery, 162–65, 170, 225–26; and network formation, 156–57, 171, 263n3; process of, 151–58; transformation of Koch’s research into, 153–58, 166, 171, 178, 179, 182
dot maps, 115, 118–19, 119, 121–23, 225, 263n4
economic development, cholera linked with, 76
education reform: and alternative medical movements, 216, 217; and American Medical Association, 80, 95, 103–4, 205, 207, 216; and consolidation of medical authority, 28, 52, 179, 219, 257n3; and epistemological change, 203; and German-American network, 172–73; and homeopathy, 55, 98, 101, 103–4, 214, 216; and hospitals, 204, 209; and laboratory analysis, 194, 203–8, 210, 211, 216, 223, 245; and medical epistemology, 203; and Paris School, 83–85, 88; and public health, 212; standards of, 203–4, 205, 206–7, 208, 219, 223, 245, 264n5; and Thomsonism, 54, 55, 79; and Welch, 204–5
Egypt, 148, 149, 166, 167
Ehrlich, Paul, 170, 239
elective affinity, 63–65, 261–62n10
Eliot, Charles, 203
empiricism: and allopathic/regular physicians, 40, 42, 43, 47, 84, 85, 88, 170–71, 190; and bacteriological paradigm, 192, 193; bedside empiricism, 44, 80, 84, 86, 87, 165, 181, 189, 192, 193, 209, 218, 223; and cholera epidemic, 77; and diagnosis, 184; and germ theory, 160; and homeopathy, 56, 79, 87; proto-empiricism, 44–45, 47, 83. See also radical empiricism
Enlightenment, 85
environmental illness, 252
epidemiological data, 160
episteme, 11, 252
epistemic authority: claims of, 27, 191; as cultural product, 81–82; and discovery, 153, 155–56; and epistemic contests, 18, 19, 21, 113, 136, 146, 177, 183, 191, 249, 259n15; and ethos, 18, 114–15, 116, 127, 146–47; framing of, 112–16, 194; as grounded in content, 114–15; as grounded in methodology, 114–15; and laboratory analysis, 183–84, 190, 191, 194, 196, 219, 220; and professionalization, 146, 185; and sanitary movement, 113, 114, 126, 128, 146, 183
