by Owen Whooley
New York State Medical Society, 97, 210
New York Times: on board of health, 111, 112, 134; on contagious nature of cholera, 125–26; on Koch’s discovery of microbe, 150; on quarantine measures, 187; on sanitary conditions, 117, 129, 130
Nightingale, Florence, 150
normal mortality rate, 115, 177, 121–22, 125
Normannia, 186–87, 188
Novy, Frederick D., 265n3
Numbers, Ronald, 265n5
numeracy, and statistics, 58, 64, 89
Ohio, repeal of medical licensing laws, 68
Ohio State Board of Health, 139
Olmstead, Frederick Law, 109
organizational factors: and American Medical Association, 8, 80, 81–83, 95, 100, 102, 106–8, 225, 226, 233, 243, 257n3; and discovery, 156; and epistemic contests, 18, 20, 27, 38, 80, 81–83, 106–8, 188, 191, 213–14, 225, 232–33, 250; and epistemic reflexivity, 248; and epistemic settings, 38, 81; and institutional production of knowledge, 38; in medical professionalization, 8–9, 81–82, 191, 213–14, 226, 243, 257n3; and role of discoveries, 28; and schemas of plausibility, 81, 101
Orme, Francis Hodgen, 56
Osler, William, 3–4, 200, 210–11
osteopaths, 213, 216
Pacini, Filippo, 263n1
Paine, Horace, 125
Paris School of medicine: and allopathic/regular physicians’ study of, 83–85, 101, 171, 177; and empiricism, 44, 84, 85; Germany as alternative to, 172; infrastructure of, 88; radical empiricism inspired by, 27, 80, 85, 88, 165, 225; and statistics, 101
Pasteur, Louis: and bacteriological paradigm, 152, 167, 176, 180; and France’s Mission Pasteur, 148; and germ theory, 156, 159, 266n8; and hygienists, 263n3; on Koch’s findings, 150, 159
Pasteur Institute, 201
Pasteurization, 156–57
patent medicine sellers, 261n3
patient/doctor relationship, and laboratory analysis, 195, 219, 264n8
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA), 228–29
penicillin, 239
Pennsylvania, 262n5
Pettenkofer, Max von, 150, 159, 178
philosophy: and epistemology, 16, 259n12; medicine as practice of, 3, 4, 42, 43, 45; and social epistemology, 258n6
phronesis, 252
Pintard, John, 34–35, 36
plague, 264n2
plumbers, 113, 115, 137–40, 225
polio, 239
political parties, rise of, 48, 49, 61–62
Polk, James K., 77
Popper, Karl, 168
positivism, 248
power disparities: and epistemic contests, 20, 30; and professional power, 2, 13, 22, 26, 95, 108, 135, 137, 226–27, 236
pragmatism, 190
press: and bacteriological paradigm, 161; and boards of health, 129; and cholera epidemics, 74, 77, 78, 109, 110, 112, 188; and Flexner Report, 207; growth of, 47, 49; on Koch’s discovery of microbe, 150; and quarantine measures, 187
private philanthropies: and education reform, 204, 207–8, 211, 216, 217; and elitist sense of responsibility, 200; and epistemic closure, 217, 242; and laboratory analysis, 201, 202, 203, 211, 235, 236, 242, 244; and medical professionalization, 5, 28, 29, 190, 226, 236, 242, 243–44
professions: defining standards and nature of knowledge, 20; developments in knowledge base, 13, 228, 243, 258n9; ecological model of, 13–14; and epistemic contests, 20–21; and expert knowledge, 190, 227, 228, 243; organizational infrastructure of, 8; role in democratic culture, 5, 26, 29, 242, 243, 244–45, 258n9; role of ideas in achievement of authority, 13–14; sociology of, 12, 14, 228, 258n9; and sociology of knowledge, 227, 228; and truth-wins-out narratives, 9
Progressive Era: politics of, 238; and scientific expertise, 8, 190, 200, 220, 234, 258n5; surveys of, 206
progress maps, 117–18
proto-empiricism, and allopathic/regular physicians, 44–45, 47, 83
Prudden, T. Mitchell, 169, 176, 186, 202
public health: and allopathic/regular physicians, 115, 116, 128, 129, 136–37, 140, 145, 211, 212; and American Medical Association, 28; and bacteriological paradigm, 152, 169–70, 195, 240–41; as eclectic movement, 27, 117, 135, 225; and germ theory, 160, 211–12; and laboratory analysis, 176, 183, 184–85, 210, 211–12; and political issues, 222; and sanitary interventions, 109; and Welch, 173. See also sanitary movement
Pure Food and Drug Act, 216
Putnam, Hilary, 180
quacks and quackery: allopathic/regular physicians’ accusations of, 67, 68, 80, 90, 94, 95; and American Medical Association, 95–97, 98, 99–102, 105, 106, 214, 225; homeopathy as, 27, 96, 97, 98, 99–100, 105, 106, 142; and medical epistemology, 5, 180; and medical licensing laws, 213; and state legislatures, 65, 66, 80, 96
quarantine measures: and cholera epidemics, 36, 74, 111, 128, 150, 184, 185, 186; and government oversight of medical practice, 186–88; and laboratory analysis, 184–87; and political issues, 185, 189
rabies, 7, 24, 239
race: and cholera debates, 188, 264n1; and medical education, 245
radical empiricism, and allopathic/regular physicians, 27, 80, 85–90, 92–94, 98, 100–102, 106–7, 125, 165–67, 181, 189, 191–92, 225, 233, 244, 262n3
rationalism: and allopathic/regular physicians, 37, 40, 42–45, 80, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 93, 191, 224–25, 233, 244, 262n6; and cholera epidemic, 77; and Thomsonism, 50
Reese, David Meredith, 34
reform movements, 49
relativism, 248
religion: and cholera epidemics, 34, 78, 112; and democratic cultures, 49; and science, 65, 252–53
Report of the Council of Hygiene, 122, 130–32
Roberts, W. C., 110
Rockefeller, John D., Jr., 200, 201
Rockefeller, John D., Sr., 196–98, 200–202, 208, 226, 235–36, 244, 264n3
Rockefeller, Lucy, 197
Rockefeller Foundation: and American Medical Association, 227, 236; and bacteriological paradigm, 190, 200–201; and Flexner Report, 207; and hospitals, 209–11; and medical reform, 213, 214, 215, 217, 218, 219, 226; and public health, 212; and science, 198; and Welch, 173, 201–2, 208; and World Health Organization, 240
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, 169, 176, 197, 202–5, 221
Roosevelt, Theodore, 199
Rosenberg, Charles, 23, 76, 260n18, 260n20
Roux, Emile, 148
Rush, Benjamin, 42
Sanitarian, 110
Sanitary Commission, 125
sanitary interventions: and cholera epidemics, 23, 25, 74–75, 90, 109, 112, 185, 187–88, 240–41; and developments in medical knowledge, 6; and germ theory, 169, 211; and miasmic theory of disease, 7, 25, 27, 170
sanitary movement: and disease as filth, 109–11, 112, 113, 115, 185, 211, 225; disparate actors of, 113, 117, 125–26, 263n1; and dot maps, 115, 118–19, 119, 121, 122, 123, 127; and epistemic authority, 113, 114, 126, 128, 146, 183; and epistemic contest, 113; and intellectual ecumenism, 114, 116, 126–28, 130, 132, 133, 136, 145, 147, 176, 183, 211, 212, 225; motivations of, 127; and normal mortality rate, 115, 117, 121–22, 125; and plumbers, 115, 137–40; and progress maps, 117–18; and sanitary surveys, 115, 117, 122–23, 125; and spot maps, 118, 120; and statistics, 121, 124–25; and trustworthiness, 126–28. See also public health
sanitary surveys, 115, 117, 122–23, 125
Scheid, Volker, 251
Schultz, Jackson, 143, 144
science: and allopathic/regular physicians, 2, 3, 28, 211; and attribution model of discoveries, 155; corporate science, 198; and credibility contests, 17; cultural authority of, 9, 12; and democratic cultures, 244, 266n9; diffusion model of, 5–6, 152; and education reform, 204; and epistemic authority, 114; feminist critiques of, 259n11; and free and open debate, 65–66; and homeopathy, 55, 79; ideal type of, 15, 18, 114; and medical reform, 214; Progressive Era’s embrace of scientific expertise, 8, 190, 200, 220, 234, 258n5; and religion, 65, 252–53; sociology of science downstream, 14, 17, 82, 155, 232,
248, 250; theoretical neutrality of, 202; and truth-wins-out narratives, 7. See also bacteriological paradigm; sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK)
scientific method, 18, 114
scientific progress, logic of, 6, 155
Second Bank of the United States, 63, 261n9
Second Great Awakening, 49
secularization, and cholera epidemics, 23, 112, 260n20
sense-making practices, and network formation, 157, 263n3
Sewell, William, 21, 260n17
Shakespeare, Edward O., 168–69, 183–84, 185, 190, 198, 217
sick-building syndrome, 252
single case study method, 250, 259n14
smallpox, 131, 260n21, 264n6, 266n7
Smith, Joseph, 130
Smith, Stephen, 130–31
Smith, Theobald, 202
Snow, John, 7, 118, 260n21, 263n3
social epistemology, 244, 258n6
socialized medicine, 237
social movements, role in epistemological debates, 235
sociology of science downstream, 14, 17, 82, 155, 232, 248, 250
sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK): and discovery, 152–53, 155; and epistemology, 15, 259n10; and laboratory analysis, 193; and sociology of professions, 12–13, 14, 228
Spanish influenza, 1–2, 19
specificity, doctrine of, 44, 261n3
specific performances of expertise, 14
Spencer, C. L., 55
Spencer, Thomas, 39–40
SS City of Berlin, 186
SS Moravia, 185–86
Standard Oil, 196, 197, 198–99, 226, 235
Starr, Paul, 8–9, 152, 237, 257–58n4, 258n5
state legislatures: and allopathic/regular physicians, 1, 26, 38–39, 59–60, 70–71, 96, 145–46, 189, 208, 213, 218, 226, 233, 236; and alternative medical movements, 1, 68–69, 70, 71, 213, 218, 224, 233; and education reform, 208; and epistemic contests, 26, 27, 38, 39, 59–60, 69–70, 71, 78, 93–94, 189, 196, 213, 218, 233; and homeopathy, 26, 57, 69, 71, 93, 102, 103, 143–44, 198, 213, 218; and medical professionalization, 27, 236, 242; and quackery, 65, 66, 80, 96. See also New York State legislature
statistics: and homeopathy, 56–58, 63, 64, 79, 90, 91, 101, 107, 118, 124–25; and numeracy, 58, 64, 89; and sanitary movement, 121, 124–25
Sternberg, George, 186
stethoscope, 84, 88
structuration theory, 261n2
suffrage, expansion of, 61–62
syphilis, 239
Taylor, Zachary, 78
TCP pilus, 25
therapeutic interventions: and bacteriological model, 7, 24–25; for cholera, 1, 32, 33, 36–37, 41–42, 45, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54, 74, 77–78, 79, 90–91, 102, 224, 261n4; and developments in medical knowledge, 6; and epistemic contests, 251; and germ theory, 180; and homeopathy, 56, 102, 180–81, 214–15, 216; and laboratory analysis, 210, 239; and Thomsonism, 50–51, 53
Thompson, E. P., 6
Thomson, John, 54
Thomson, Samuel, 50, 51, 52–53, 78–79
Thomsonian Messenger, 52
Thomsonism: and democratization of medical knowledge, 50–54, 59, 63, 64–65, 69, 87, 261–62n10; and epistemic contests, 38, 59, 67, 71, 78, 224; as grassroots medical movement, 26; homeopathy compared to, 55; infighting of, 78–79; and medical epistemology, 234; and repeal of medical licensing laws, 53, 54, 64; styles of reasoning, 59; and women, 50, 261n5
Thuillier, Louis, 148
transportation, and cholera, 33, 47, 74, 76
trust: allocation of, 246; and allopathic/regular physicians, 45, 47; cultural norms of, 14; and epistemic authority, 18, 115; and epistemic contests, 20; epistemic trustworthiness, 126–35; and laboratory analysis, 244; and statistics, 58
truth claims: and epistemic contests, 232, 249; historical-epistemological context of, 10, 11–12, 248, 255; and medical professionalization, 12–13; and sociology of scientific knowledge, 15; and Thomsonism, 53
truth-wins-out narrative: and bacteriological paradigm, 6, 7, 9, 24, 239; and laboratory analysis, 265n1; logic of, 7, 9; and medical epistemology, 5–6; and medical professionalization, 6, 7, 8, 10; resiliency of, 7–8
tuberculosis, 23, 149, 160, 179–80, 239
Tufts University, 207
Twain, Mark, 76
Tyndall, John, 259n15
typhus epidemics, 264n2
uniform law of mortality, 121
Union Army, and homeopathy, 104–5, 106, 262–63n7
University of Michigan, 103–4, 105, 106
urbanization, and cholera, 47
U.S. Collector of the Port of New York, 186
U.S. medical system: economics of, 229; exceptionalism of, 5, 29, 228–30, 236–37, 243; histories of, 6, 234–37; organizational changes in, 237; politics of, 237–38
vaccination: and bacteriological paradigm, 24; and cholera, 183, 184, 265n6; and homeopathy, 163–64; and Koch’s findings, 170; logic of, 164, 264n6; for smallpox, 266n7
Van Buren, Martin, 62
Venezuela, 240
Vibrio cholerae, 7, 25, 240, 241
Waldor, Matthew K., 25
Warner, John Harley, 261n3
Weiss, Ernst, 265n2
Welch, William: and bacteriological paradigm, 167, 172, 176, 186; and connections to Koch’s laboratory, 176, 226; and education reforms, 172–73, 204–5, 208, 209; and Abraham Flexner, 206; and German-American network, 173, 177; network of bacteriologists, 174–75, 200, 201–2, 206, 211; and Rockefeller philanthropies, 173, 201–2, 208; “Welch Rabbits,” 173, 173
Wells, P. P., 56
Wendt, E. C., 165
Whig Party, 61, 62
Wilcox, DeWitt G., 215
women: and medical education, 245; and Thomsonism, 50, 261n5
Worboys, Michael, 260n22
World Health Organization (WHO), 240
yellow fever, 23, 56, 239, 260n19
