Thinking about this truly does cause one to marvel, and it makes one realize what a vast number of people were necessary to make these structures. In fact, we see stones of such enormous size that a hundred men could not work even one of them in a month. Therefore, what they say becomes believable, and it is that when the fortress [Sacsayhuaman] of Cuzco was under construction, there were normally thirty thousand people working on it. This is not surprising since the lack of implements, apparatus, and ingenuity necessarily increased the amount of work, and thus they did everything by sheer manpower.
The implements that they had to cut the stones and work them were hard, black cobblestones from the rivers, with which they worked more by pounding than cutting. The stones were taken to the work site by dragging them, and since they had no cranes, wheels, or apparatus for lifting them, they made a ramp of earth next to the construction site, and they rolled the stones up the ramp. As the structure went up higher, they kept building up the ramp to the same height. I saw this method used for the Cathedral of Cuzco which is under construction. Since the laborers who work on this job are Indians, the Spanish masons and architects let them use their own methods of doing the work, and in order to raise up the stones, they made the ramps mentioned above, piling earth next to the wall until the ramp was as high as the wall (Cobo 1990: 229–230 [1653: Bk. 14, Ch. 12]).23
PHOTO 9.8. At the site of Sillustani near Lake Titicaca, a possible construction ramp can still be seen beside a large funerary tower.
The Inca removed the construction ramps used to make the great walls at Sacsayhuaman at the end of the building phase. Nevertheless, evidence for such ramps can be seen at other Inca sites. For example, at the site of Sillustani near Lake Titicaca, a possible ramp can still be seen beside a large, unfinished funerary tower (Photo 9.8).
Much of the stone used in the construction of Sacsayhuaman may have been quarried from the outcrops to the north of the site (Kalafatovich 1970). This area continues to serve as an important source of cobblestones and other construction materials for Cuzco. Many of the laborers that worked on Sacsayhuaman lived near it. Cieza de León indicates that in his time, “most of the walls of the houses they occupied can still be seen.”24 Our survey identified a large Inca site that may have functioned as the temporary living facility for the mit’a laborers that built Sacsayhuaman. The site, Muyu Cocha (Ch. 358), is only a few minutes’ walk from Sacsayhuaman and it contains more than 5 hectares of dense domestic remains.25 It is clearly visible today, and it is even more notable on photographs dating to the early 1930s (Photo 9.9).
Unlike most other large domestic Inca sites in the Cuzco Valley, Muyu Cocha does not contain evidence of earlier occupations. In other words, the site was both founded and abandoned during the relatively short period during which Classic Inca pottery was being manufactured. Furthermore, our surface collections from the site recovered an unusually large number of Lake Titicaca ceramic styles, including Sillustani, Urcusuyu, and Pacajes—all of which are known to have been produced in the Lake Titicaca region during the Inca Period.26 The presence of these ceramic styles at the site of Muyu Cocha suggests that many of the workers who lived there were from the southern lake territory of the empire.
Following the siege of Cuzco, the Spaniards began to use Sacsayhuaman as a source of stones for building Spanish Cuzco, and within less than a year, much of the complex was demolished (Betanzos 1996: 157–158 [1557: Pt. 1, Bk. 37]). The site was destroyed block by block to build the new governmental and religious buildings of the city, as well as the houses of the wealthiest Spaniards. In the words of Garcilaso de la Vega (1966: 471 [1609: Pt. 1, Bk. 7, Ch. 29]): “to save themselves the expense, effort and delay with which the Indians worked the stone, they pulled down all the smooth masonry in the walls. There is indeed not a house in the city that has not been made of this stone, or at least the houses built by the Spaniards.”27 Today, tragically, only the stones that were too large to be easily moved remain at the site.28
Summary and Discussion
The Cuzco Valley was transformed during the period of imperial development. Not only did the number and size of settlements dramatically increase, but many began to take on the character of the newly emergent empire. State-sponsored construction projects rose to an unprecedented level, as palaces, estates, temples, storage facilities, and other state installations were constructed. The rivers of the valley were canalized, and major tracts of land continued to be terraced. The finest agricultural areas were set aside for the many religious cults of the city or as the private holdings of the Cuzco elite. Craft production, especially in ceramics, textiles, and metals, rose to an unparalleled scale to meet the increased consumption as well as the sacrificial demands of the growing empire. At the same time, immense amounts of exotic materials were being brought to the city as tribute payment by conquered peoples. To accommodate the great numbers of people who came and went from the city each day, the numerous roads that had always led to the valley were expanded and widened. Pedro Sancho (1898: 137 [1534]) describes the thriving valley as seen from the northwest end, near the fortress of Sacsayhuaman, as he entered with Pizarro’s forces in 1534:
From this fort, looking around, one sees the houses of the city extending a quarter, a half and a league away. In the valley that is surrounded by hills, there are more than five thousand houses. Many of these are houses of pleasure and recreation of past lords. Others are those of foreign caciques who reside permanently in the city. There are also some that are houses or storehouses full of mantles, wool, arms, metals, clothes and everything else that is grown or made in this land.29 (Translation by author)
PHOTO 9.9. The large site of Muyu Cocha can be seen in the upper center of this photograph. An Inca road divides the site into two parts, and irregular vegetation marks the area of domestic structures. Also note the many quarried rock outcrops that may have provided stone for the nearby site of Sacsayhuaman. (Neg. no. 334794, photo courtesy the Library, American Museum of Natural History)
Within the city, spectacular elite and religious buildings expanded to fill the entire area between the two rivers, and a large plaza capable of holding thousands of people was built. The numerous villages that surrounded the city also underwent impressive growth as they provided support personnel for many institutions in the city center (Garcilaso de la Vega 1966: 417–430 [1609: Pt. 1, Bk. 7, Chs. 8–11]).
The provincial populations under Inca rule across the Andes produced vast amounts of goods, the finest of which were sent to the imperial capital. As tribute demands brought boundless amounts of wealth into the capital, Cuzco became a cosmopolitan center, and people from diverse areas of the empire came to live there. Some of these foreigners were nobility, sent to represent their ethnic groups in the imperial capital. Others came to Cuzco on pilgrimage to see and to make offerings at the great temples of the city. Still others had been forcibly removed from rebellious regions and were resettled in the Cuzco Valley as part of the massive pacification policies of the Inca. For example, it is well documented that large numbers of Cañari (from the central area of Ecuador) and Chachapoyas (from the northeastern highlands of Peru) were resettled in Cuzco in an attempt to depopulate and thus pacify these rebellious, newly conquered territories. Yet others had been sent by their village leaders to fulfill labor obligations, which reshaped the valley and its principal city in ways that still, a half-millennium later, astound visitors to the region.
CHAPTER 10
Inca Cuzco
VISITORS TO MODERN CUZCO frequently marvel at the exquisite workmanship of its many Inca walls. The prevailing impression is that a great deal of Inca Cuzco has survived and that the layout of the central plaza and the surrounding sectors of the city have remained largely unchanged since Inca times. Although this is true in the most general sense, it is important to note that the majority of the architectural features that adorned central Cuzco during the rule of the Inca were long ago destroyed. New streets have been created, ancient ones lost, and the
bulk of the city’s former palaces, halls, temples, and shrines have been demolished.
Although the loss of Inca Cuzco has for the most part been gradual, several early events did profoundly alter the central core area.1 Spanish influence on the city began as early as 1533 with the arrival of an advance party sent by Francisco Pizarro to extract precious metals from its temples. Foreign control of Cuzco was established in 1534 with the founding of what can be called “Spanish” Cuzco (Libro Primero del Cabildo de la Ciudad del Cuzco 1965 [1534]). This involved the division of central Cuzco into house lots for the conquistadors and the establishment of various major Spanish institutions, including the first Christian church on the plaza and the Municipal Council (Cabildo).
Two years later, in 1536, Manco Inca burned much of central Cuzco as he fought against Hernando Pizarro for control of the city. The razing of Cuzco, the full retreat of Manco Inca, and the subsequent establishment of uncontested Spanish domination of the city was followed by a prolonged period of construction in the central district (1536–1650), during which numerous formally sacred places were transformed to commercial uses or destroyed. Various regal buildings were either pulled down or greatly altered to accommodate shops and new houses for the Spaniards. Even the size and shape of the central plaza was dramatically altered as new buildings were built in the city center and Inca monuments removed.
Finally, there was the devastating earthquake of March 31, 1650, that leveled much of Cuzco (Photo 10.1). Hundreds of buildings were damaged and scores of people were killed (Esquivel y Navia 1980 [1749]; Julien 1995). As Cuzco was slowly rebuilt, construction followed the canons of European architecture rather than those established by the Inca for the city. The Inca Empire had fallen more than a century earlier, and the importance of Cuzco had already been eclipsed by the new Spanish capital of Lima (Ciudad de los Reyes) on the coast.
This chapter examines the city of Cuzco and its many different elite and religious compounds as they stood at the height of the empire, just before contact with Pizarro occurred. Using the Inca structures that have survived into the present, and various accounts of Cuzco written between the arrival of the first Spaniards in 1533 and the 1650 earthquake, I discuss many of the royal palaces, temples, and other major monuments that existed in the center of Cuzco during Inca times.2
PHOTO 10.1. The devastating 1650 earthquake that destroyed much of Cuzco is documented in a painting ordered by Alonso Cortés de Monroy. Known as the Monroy Panorama, it currently hangs in the Triunfo, in Cuzco. (Courtesy of the Latin American Library Tulane University)
Important Documents
Any attempt to reconstruct Inca Cuzco must begin with a map of the urban center and copies of the earliest descriptions of the city.3 Although many historic sources describe parts of Inca Cuzco, several documents stand out for their details and accuracy. Among these is the Libro Primero del Cabildo de la Ciudad del Cuzco (First Book of the City Council of Cuzco, 1965 [1534]) in which were recorded the Cuzco house lots that were awarded by Francisco Pizarro to his men. This document provides a lot-by-lot account of the division of Cuzco among the first Spaniards, and it contains various references to the important Inca buildings they came to own. Another important document is the chronicle of Pedro Pizarro. Cousin to the older and more famous Pizarro bothers (Francisco, Hernando, and Gonzalo), Pedro Pizarro was one of the few early conquistadors to write an account of the full conquest. He was present in Cuzco during its Spanish founding and spent much of his life there. Other notable eyewitness accounts of Cuzco at the time of the Spanish invasion are those written by Pedro Sancho (1917 [1534]), Cristóbal Mena (1929 [1534]), Miguel de Estete (1985 [1534]), and Francisco Xerez (1985 [1534]).
Also critical in understanding the layout of the Inca capital is the work of Garcilaso de la Vega. In his old age, Garcilaso de la Vega wrote a general history of Peru that includes many of his memories of growing up in Cuzco between 1539 and 1560. He provides especially detailed information on the destruction of various Inca buildings that surrounded the plaza and the locations of the most important royal compounds of the city.
Another important source on Inca Cuzco, although one that is more difficult to use, is a long list of Inca shrines (huacas) preserved within the work of Bernabé Cobo (1990 [1653]). Cobo, who gained his information from a now lost 1559 manuscript written by Polo de Ondegardo, provides a detailed account of several hundred shrines located in and around the city of Cuzco (Bauer 1998). Since the shrines were organized along lines, or ceques, the shrine system as a whole is frequently referred to as the “Cuzco ceque system.” Although Cobo provides only brief descriptions of each of the shrines, his list does include many details that are not recorded in other historical sources.4
The Arrival of the First Europeans in Cuzco
Francisco Pizarro captured the ruling Inca, Atahualpa, in November of 1532 in the city of Cajamarca. Pizarro held the Inca king hostage for over eight months while enormous amounts of gold and silver were transferred to Cajamarca from across the empire in exchange for the king’s release. During this period of captivity, the invading Spanish forces had free rein to explore the vast unknown world they had only recently entered. Pizarro took advantage of this time and sent small groups of men on different expeditions.
One team traveled across the central Andean mountains to the imperial city of Cuzco. The round-trip journey took over four months, although just eight days were spent in Cuzco itself.5 The expedition was composed of three Spaniards6 and a high-ranking Inca official,7 all of whom were carried in royal litters.8
This small expedition was the second invading force to enter Cuzco within a short period. A few months earlier, one of Atahualpa’s armies under the command of Chalcochima and Quizquiz had fought and won a decisive victory over Huascar’s men and had invaded the imperial capital. Atahualpa’s generals assembled and executed as many of Huascar’s family, and members of other opposed kin groups, as they could find. They were still in control of Cuzco when the three Spaniards entered it for the first time. Yet with Atahualpa held hostage, there was little that Chalcochima or Quizquiz could do but watch the Spaniards as they searched the city for treasure.
The Spaniards wandered through Cuzco, astonished by its large size, paved streets, and the fine stone constructions of its many palaces and temples. Xerez (1985: 149 [1534]) records the impression of Juan de Zárate of Cuzco:
He said that the city of Cuzco is as large as has been described, and that it is located on a hillside near a plain. The streets are very well organized and paved, and in the eight days that they were there they could not see everything.9
Nevertheless, they soon turned to the business at hand: stripping the Inca capital of its wealth. The Spaniards removed the fine gold plates from the walls of one building within the Coricancha as well as those of a second building that contained less valuable gold alloy (see Chapter 11). Among their greatest finds was a large golden bench (altar)10 and a large gold fountain (Mena 1929: 37 [1534]). In another building, they discovered a room that contained so many silver vessels that they could not transport them all back to Cajamarca. Sealing the room and placing guards at its door, the Spaniards claimed this hoard in the name of King Charles I and Francisco Pizarro (Mena 1929: 37 [1534]).
The Spaniards were surprised to find that the palaces of the former Inca rulers continued to be maintained in royal splendor long after the death of the king. Even more shocking to the Europeans was that each of the former rulers of Cuzco was embalmed at the time of his death, and that these mummies continued to be seen in public and to be served by royal attendants. On entering one building, they found Huayna Capac, the father of Atahualpa, who had died about eight years earlier. Mena records this first encounter between the Spaniards and the royal mummies of the Inca:
In another very large building they found many very heavy earthenware pitchers covered with gold leaf. They did not wish to break these for fear of angering the Indians. In this temple were many women and there were the e
mbalmed bodies of two men and with them was a live woman with a mask of gold on her face dusting (and chasing) out flies and they [the mummies] had in their hands a very rich cane of gold. The woman would not allow them to enter the temple till they had removed their shoes, and when this was done they went to see the mummies and took from them many rich pieces. And they did not succeed in taking all the pieces because the cacique Atahualpa had begged them not to take them saying that one was his father Cuzco. And on account of this they did not dare take off more. (Mena 1929: 37 [1534])11
After a little more than a week, the three Spaniards left Cuzco and began the long journey back to Cajamarca. Following them was a line of more than seven hundred men carrying the treasure that had been robbed from the city (Xerez 1985: 149 [1534]). In less than six months, Cuzco had been ravaged in the civil war between Atahualpa and Huascar and its finest buildings stripped of their wealth by the newly arrived European strangers.
The Fall of Inca Cuzco (1533–1536)
In November of 1553, five months after the first three Spaniards visited Cuzco, Pizarro’s small army arrived at the imperial city. Sancho (1917: 153–154 [1534]), who arrived with the army, describes his impressions of the city:
The city of Cuzco is the principal one of all those where the lords of this land have their residence; it is so large and so beautiful that it would be worthy of admiration even in Spain; and it is full of the palaces of the lords, because no poor people live there, and each lord builds there his house, and all the caciques do likewise, although the latter do not dwell there continuously. The greater part of these houses are of stone, and others have half the façade of stone. There are many houses of adobe, and they are all arranged in very good order. The streets are laid out at right angles, they are very straight, and are paved, and down the middle runs a gutter for water lined with stone. The chief defect which the streets have is that of being narrow, so that only one horse and rider can go on one side of the gutter and another upon the opposite side. (Sancho 1917: 153–154 [1534])12
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