It was all or nothing for Gerry. He became a member of the Committee of Safety, helped lead the colonists’ armed response to the British, collected supplies, and recruited troops using his own money.
REVOLUTIONARY REVELATIONS
When the British marched on Lexington and Concord in April 1775, Gerry was staying at an inn along the route in Arlington. He did not take any chances as British troops approached the inn on the night of April 18, 1775. He escaped from possible detention by fleeing—still wearing his nightclothes.
As Active As Any Soldier
It was a second thought on the part of the citizens of Massachusetts, but they elected Gerry to the Second Continental Congress. Originally, Thomas Cushing was one of the colony’s representatives to the Congress. But he refused to support independence. The citizens of Massachusetts did not see any sense in sending a delegate who would be counterproductive, so they elected Elbridge Gerry to replace Cushing. He rewarded their faith in him.
Gerry listened to arguments on both sides, and finally voted for independence, buoyed by his friends’ pleas.
Quotations to Live (and Die) By!
“FOR GOD’S SAKE LET THERE BE A FULL REVOLUTION, OR ALL HAS BEEN DONE IN VAIN.”
—JOSEPH HAWLEY IN A MAY 1, 1776, LETTER TO ELBRIDGE GERRY
But he was absent on August 2, 1776, when the delegates signed the Declaration of Independence. He signed it on November 19, 1776, after he returned to Philadelphia.
Gerry stayed in Congress for several years after the war began. He served on a multitude of committees, and was active on the army’s behalf.
Among other things, he helped design a general hospital for the army to replace regimental hospitals, which he considered impractical since they were difficult to move when a regiment relocated. Gerry also developed plans for instilling stricter discipline into the army and regulating the commissary’s departments. He often visited army facilities to assess their financial statuses and make sure the military was paying its bills. After the war, he served another two-year term with the Continental Congress, then eased off on his activities until duty called once more.
Constitutionally Unacceptable
Gerry was selected as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787, even though he had reservations about the document. Faithful to his principles, he refused to sign it. He explained simply to his constituents that it had too many flaws. That didn’t stop them from electing him to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1789, where he served two terms upholding the same document he had refused to sign.
After those two terms, Gerry declined to run for reelection. He tried to retire, but in 1797 President John Adams asked him to serve as an envoy with John Marshall and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney to France to try to resolve differences between the two countries regarding commerce. France sent Marshall and Pinckney home. Gerry stayed and helped reduce the tensions between the countries—temporarily, at least. After returning from France in October 1798, Gerry settled once again into retirement, which was as short-lived as his previous attempts.
Quotations to Live (and Die) By!
“MY PRINCIPAL OBJECTIONS TO THE PLAN ARE, THAT THERE IS NO ADEQUATE PROVISION FOR A REPRESENTATION OF THE PEOPLE; THAT THEY HAVE NO SECURITY FOR THE RIGHT OF ELECTION; THAT SOME OF THE POWERS OF THE LEGISLATURE ARE AMBIGUOUS, AND OTHERS INDEFINITE AND DANGEROUS…”
—A PARTIAL LIST OF ELBRIDGE GERRY’S OBJECTIONS TO THE U.S. CONSTITUTION
Gerry ran unsuccessfully for governor of Massachusetts in 1800, 1801, 1802, and 1803. He finally won the office in 1810. He served two terms as governor of Massachusetts. In 1812 the Massachusetts legislature redrew the boundaries of state legislative districts to favor Gerry’s party. The word “gerrymandering” was coined to describe the process. It is used today in the same context. The process cost Gerry his reelection bid in 1812. That year, he began a partial term as vice president of the United States. He replaced George Clinton, who died in office on April 20, 1812. Strangely enough, Gerry did the same thing two-and-a-half years later.
FEDERAL FACTS
The United States and France fought one another in the Quasi-War between 1798−1800 over treaty disputes, neutrality issues regarding the French Revolution, and French privateers’ practices of preying on American merchant vessels. The war, fought entirely at sea, was a tactical win for the United States. The countries resolved it with the Treaty of Mortefontaine, signed on September 30, 1800.
He is not remembered for many of his other accomplishments, but he will always be known for “gerrymandering.” That is his legacy.
NATHANAEL GREENE
Warwick, Rhode Island
August 7, 1742−June 19, 1786
You Don’t Need to Win a Battle to Win a War
If there was a military science book available in Coventry, Rhode Island, in the 1750s, Nathanael Greene read it. The fact that he gained most of his military training through books rather than practical experience set him apart from most other military leaders in the Revolutionary War. However he acquired it, his military knowledge paid off later when he became one of George Washington’s most trusted generals, capping a meteoric rise for the former member of the Rhode Island General Assembly and militiaman in a local company called the Kentish Guards.
On-the-Job Training
Greene was one of four Rhode Islanders to rush to Boston to offer his services after the battles at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. Shortly thereafter, the Rhode Island General Assembly authorized a force of 1,600 troops to travel to Massachusetts and appointed Greene to lead them. The Assembly was taking a chance. Greene’s military experience to that point amounted to what he had learned from books in his large personal library and a bit of training with the Kentish Guards. That proved to be enough.
When Washington arrived in Boston to take command of the American troops, he and Greene bonded immediately. Their friendship and close working relationship contributed significantly to the Americans’ ultimate military victory.
Washington and Greene took their war on the road and fought wherever they were needed following the successful conclusion to the siege of Boston. Where Washington went, Greene was sure to follow.
REVOLUTIONARY REVELATIONS
Greene had a unique perspective on serving his country as a soldier. Early in the war many patriots were willing to serve in their local areas. Once the army moved to a different locale they went home. Greene was not among them. He theorized that patriots’ unwillingness to travel with the army would prevent a military victory.
Next Stop, New York
In 1776, Greene led troops during the battles at Long Island, New York City, and Princeton, New Jersey. On July 1, 1776, his troops were under great pressure on Long Island where British army units were massing to drive them away. Washington dispatched 500 men to reinforce him. Unfortunately, Greene became ill and missed the rest of the battle. He recovered in time to suffer severe anguish over the loss of Fort Washington in the Battle of New York.
FEDERAL FACTS
The Americans were desperate for supplies in 1776. In typical “good news, bad news” fashion, while Greene was calling for reinforcements, Washington’s aide-de-camp, Samuel Blachley Webb, noted in his diary: “We have also received intelligence that our cruisers on the back of Long Island have taken and carried in one of the enemie’s [sic] fleet laden with intrenching [sic] tools.” At least Greene and his reinforcements could dig in for the battle, even if they had no hopes of winning it.
There were better days ahead for him, but not always on the battlefield. Before his next major assignment after the defeat at New York, and a largely unsuccessful year on the battlefields in 1777, Greene had to help save Washington’s job. A cabal of politicians and jealous officers formed a plot in late 1777 aimed at replacing Washington as commander in chief and ousting Greene because of his loyalty to the general. The loosely organized plot never came to fruition, due in part to Greene’s refusal to support any attempts to denigrate Washin
gton.
The Long Winter
When the Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge in 1777−78, it was woefully short of supplies. To remedy the shortage, effective March 24, 1778, Washington named Greene as the army’s quartermaster, whose job it was to make sure the troops were supplied with food, clothing, quarters, and equipment. Greene accepted the position reluctantly. Nevertheless, he performed the job admirably after extracting a promise from Washington that he would be in command of troops when needed.
True to his word, Washington assigned Greene to command troops at the June 28, 1778, battle at Monmouth, New Jersey. He also named Greene commanding officer at West Point, a post Benedict Arnold had vacated.
REVOLUTIONARY REVELATIONS
Greene was a fair man. Once André admitted that he was a spy, the Americans had little choice but to hang him for his treachery. However, Greene met with the British General James Robertson after the sentence was pronounced to listen to arguments to save André’s life. He considered them carefully, but ultimately rejected them. André was hanged.
Greene arrived at West Point shortly after John André’s and Benedict Arnold’s plot to turn the site over to the British was revealed. He stayed at West Point long enough to strengthen its defenses and chair the commission to try André. Then he was reassigned to a new theater.
Greene Heads South
As 1780 neared, the Americans needed a talented, aggressive army commander in the Deep South, where the British had won a series of significant victories in 1779. General Horatio Gates was not up to the task. Washington sent Greene to replace him.
Quotations to Live (and Die) By!
“WHAT I HAVE BEEN DREADING HAS COME TO PASS. HIS EXCELLENCY GENERAL WASHINGTON HAS APPOINTED ME TO COMMAND OF THE SOUTHERN ARMY… THIS IS SO FOREIGN FROM MY WISHES THAT I AM DISTRESSED EXCEEDINGLY… HOW UNFRIENDLY WAR IS TO DOMESTIC HAPPINESS!”
—NATHANAEL GREENE IN AN OCTOBER 1780 LETTER TO HIS WIFE CATHERINE
Greene arrived at Charlotte, North Carolina, on December 2, 1780. Due to his perennial shortage of men and supplies, he played cat-and-mouse with the British army for several months. He finally lured them into a battle at Guilford Court House on March 14, 1781. The Americans did not win the battle, but they damaged the British considerably. The British sustained 532 casualties, considerably more than the American total of 365.
Greene then began a systematic withdrawal across South Carolina that further weakened the British, who were getting farther and farther away from their supply sources as they followed him.
The British commander, General Cornwallis, fell into Greene’s trap. The two sides met again in battle at Hobkirk’s Hill, Ninety Six, Eutaw Springs—always places of Greene’s choosing. Finally, after the battle of Eutaw Springs on September 8, 1781, Cornwallis realized the futility of his chase. Greene had won the war without winning a battle. Greene left South Carolina in August 1783, secure in the knowledge that he had been instrumental in securing independence for the United States.
REVOLUTIONARY REVELATIONS
Greene did not leave the South empty-handed. The North Carolina legislature gave him 5,000 guineas, and Georgia presented him with 24,000 acres of prime real estate—and a place to be buried.
Back to Georgia
Once the war ended, Greene returned to Rhode Island, which no longer held the fascination it once had for him. He had some valuable land in Georgia, so he moved the family there in late 1785. Life was idyllic for them.
Sadly, the beauty was not to last. While visiting a fellow planter in early June 1786, Greene stayed out in the sun too long. He became feverish and died a few days later. The country went into mourning for the man who had stayed so loyal to George Washington and his country throughout the war—and can truly be credited with helping to save both.
ALEXANDER HAMILTON
Caribbean Island of Nevis
January 11, 1755 or 1757−July 12, 1804
Duel Personalities
Hamilton’s accomplishments overshadowed his sometimes acerbic personality. He was a financial genius whose work as the first secretary of the treasury set a precedent that was hard to follow. The list of legislative bodies in which he served was long and varied. Hamilton established the U.S. Mint and the Revenue Cutter Service, the forerunner of the U.S. Coast Guard. He might have accomplished more for his adopted country had he not been cut down at a relatively early age in a duel.
Beating the Odds
Of all the Founding Fathers, Alexander Hamilton had the largest hill to climb to reach success. Most of them were born into aristocratic families. Hamilton was a poor, illegitimate child whose father lived thousands of miles away.
Alexander Hamilton’s mother, Rachel Faucett Lavien, was married to John Lavien. They lived on the Danish island of St. Croix. Rachel and John divorced in 1759. According to Danish law, she could not remarry. Rachel moved to Nevis, where she met James Hamilton. They produced Alexander and moved to St. Croix in 1765. So, by a quirk of law, Alexander was an illegitimate child. Shortly thereafter, James abandoned his family, leaving Rachel to rely on friends and family members for financial support.
After she died in 1768, islanders saw to it that Hamilton learned to read, write, and learn the mercantile business. Once they determined that he was exceptionally bright, they sent him to New York for a proper education at King’s College (now Columbia University). He was fifteen at the time.
Hamilton arrived in New York when debates over independence versus loyalty to Britain were reaching a fever pitch. He got into the spirit of the debates in a pamphlet battle with a loyalist who was writing under the pseudonym “The Farmer.” Hamilton rebutted “The Farmer’s” arguments, using the name “Friend to America.” The die was cast: Hamilton was firmly in the patriots’ corner, and he did not hesitate to blast Parliament.
FEDERAL FACTS
Debates were often waged in written form in the 1700s. Writers using pen names squared off through widely read pamphlets that served as starting points for pro and con supporters to argue.
Firing for Effect
While engaging in debate, Hamilton was also preparing for war. He immersed himself in a study of artillery warfare. His self-training paid off quickly: Hamilton joined an artillery regiment in March 1776, and received an officer’s commission as captain of the Provincial Company of Artillery. The title sounded more impressive than the job actually was. Before he could resolve all his logistics challenges, such as outfitting, arming, and training his troops, Hamilton was embroiled in the war.
General Washington moved his troops from Boston to New York and the battles around the city involved Hamilton’s New York Artillery Regiment. He turned out to be a fine artillery officer.
For the next few years, Hamilton fought in battle after battle. He took a position as an aide to General Washington, but they had a falling out because Washington would not give Hamilton his own command.
FEDERAL FACTS
Men who raised their own militia units in the Revolutionary War era were responsible for recruiting, training, feeding, and supplying their troops, as well as leading them in battle.
Washington relented eventually. Hamilton had his own command during the siege of Yorktown in 1781, where he led the Americans in the final attack on the British position. After the campaign ended, the fighting subsided and the need for an active army diminished. Hamilton ended his active military career as a result, and returned to New York to study law. He was appointed to Congress and saw another side of the military: the lack of financial support for the army. Hamilton served one year in the Continental Congress, then concentrated on his law practice. In his “spare” time he established the Bank of New York.
A National Treasurer
Hamilton did not stay on the political sidelines for long. He saw a need for centralization and checks and balances in government. Consequently, he was named a delegate from New York to the 1786 Annapolis Convention, which required a good chunk of his time. The Annap
olis Convention was convened to discuss the Articles of Confederation, the United States’ first attempt at governing itself. The result of the gathering was a recommendation to forget the articles and write a new Constitution.
After the convention failed to accomplish its goal, a call went out for delegates to a Constitutional Convention. Hamilton served as a delegate. He helped draft the Constitution and wrote many of the “Federalist Papers,” eighty-five essays written under pseudonyms between October 1787 and August 1788 by Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison in support of ratification of the U.S. Constitution.
After the Constitution was ratified, Hamilton served in the Congress of the Confederation in 1788−89. But Washington called on him once again, naming him the nation’s first secretary of the treasury.
Quotations to Live (and Die) By!
“A NATIONAL DEBT, IF IT IS NOT EXCESSIVE, WILL BE TO US A NATIONAL BLESSING.”
—ALEXANDER HAMILTON
Hamilton believed in a strong federal government. He maintained that the U.S. Constitution—which he had helped write—allowed the federal government to fund the national debt, assume state debts, and create its own bank. He proposed that these programs would be funded by a tariff on imports and an excise tax on whiskey.
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