Life After Violence
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illegal means of survival, 108–9
independence, 8–11
India, 140
inequality, horizontal, 85–6
infrastructure, investment in, 81
Innocent, a farmer, 28, 29–30
insecurity, 175–6; role of, 171
institutional transformation, 18
internally displaced people (IDPs), 29, 36, 49, 121, 126; IDP camps, 61, 76, 84
international community, action by, 181
International Court of Justice (ICJ), 157
interview guide approach, 26
job creation, 119
justice, 145–70; transitional, 52, 145, 147, 154, 162, 168, 169
justice/reconciliation, 43
justiciability, 65
Kabongo, 36
Kamenge, 32, 39, 48, 50, 55, 82, 85, 90, 97, 109, 184, 185
Kaplan, Robert, 178
Kayanza, 38
Kirundi language, 28
kwashiorkor, 96
Laely, Thomas, 70–6
land, conflict over, 166
landlessness, 82
law, enforcement of, 176, 180 Leta (state), 78
liberalization, economic, 81
Liberia, 183
ligala (hanging out), 97, 100, 102, 108
Lionel, 28
listen/respect, 59–60, 61, 64
local elites, 174–5, 180; role of, in violence, 171
location of study, 36–40
malnutrition, 95
manhood, 124–5; normative, 142, 178, 181; related to married status, 124 see also masculinity
marginalization, 118; of youth, 102–3
marriage, 92–3, 136, 138, 140–1, 185; age of, 123, 125, 129, 130–2, 138; as escape from poverty, 132; costs of, borne by women, 128; hallmark of adulthood, 34; perceived impossibility of, 142; polygamous, 99, 133; requirements of, relaxed, 132, 143; traditional, 181; unofficial, 127, 128, 143; views of, 99–100, 123–44
masculinity, 136, 141, 123–44 passim; and violence, 178–81; frustrated, relation to violence, 143 see also manhood
media, 77; owned by government, 66
men, responsibility of, 135 see also young men
methodology, 2, 25, 26
Micombero, Michel, 9
migration, 84, 92–8, 117, 118, 143, 185; and education, 88; dangers of, 94; urban, 126
Militants-Combattants, demobilization of, 20
military dictatorship, 73
military integration, 19
miserability of the literature, 182
mobility, 49–50; social, 98–105
modernity, 84, 117
money: earning of, 136 (by women, taboo, 136) morality, 135; of women, 136
Musaga, 32, 39, 40, 51, 55, 84, 85, 97, 109, 163, 165; migrants in, 92
mushingantahe, 149, 151, 155, 157, 158, 159, 161, 189
mutual help, 112–16; among urban youth, 115
Mwami (king), 7
National Commission to Study the Question of National Unity, 11
National Council of Bashingantahe, 63
National Truth and Reconciliation Commission (NTRC), 146
Ndadaye, Melchior, 12; assassination of, 13, 155, 176
Nee, Ann, 146
negative leaders, 175
neo-patrimonialism, 187
Ngozi, 50, 84, 86, 92, 129, 131, 174
Niyoyankana, General, 21
Nkurunziza, Peter, 15, 20, 21, 37, 85, 90, 173
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 170, 173, 187; employment in, 118
NRC organization, 109
Ntibantunganya, Sylvestre, 14
Nyangoma, Léonard, 14–15, 20
Nyanza-Lac, 28, 30, 35, 36, 37–8, 51, 55, 62, 84, 86, 99, 109, 114, 129, 138, 146, 149, 152, 154, 156, 159, 160, 162, 165
obedience, 135; of women, 136
OLUCOME organization, 66
Organization of African Unity (OAU), 15
orphans, 126
pardon, 148, 156
PARENA party, 40
Paris, Roland, 52
Parti Démocrate Chrétien (PDC), 9
Parti pour la Libération du Peuple Hutu (PALIPEHUTU), 11–12, 15
party politics, 103
Patton, Michael Quinn, 26
peace: as good governance, 50–1; definition of, 183–5; multi-criteria definitions of, 44, 51; negative, 43, 44; positive, 43, 51; related to mobility, 49–50; social, 48–9
peace (amahoro), meaning of, 43–57
Peace Building Commission, 92
Peace Building Fund, 185
peace research, 43
peace-support organizations (PSOs), 53
perseverance, 105–7; value of, 186
Pierre, a driver, 28
pillage, 46
police, role of, 56
politicians, 172; alienation from, 173; responsible for war, 156–8
politics, is everything, 177
polygamy, 131
poor people, 67; difficulty of
talking to, 34; victims of war, 47
population growth, 82, 117, 119
positive deviance, 183
post-conflict agenda, economic, 81
poverty, 18, 85, 97–8, 102, 104, 105, 106, 119–20, 125, 126, 127, 129, 140, 166, 180; cause of civil war, 48; in the city, 111; marriage as escape from, 132; perceived as rural, 186 see also poor people
Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), 44
pragmatism, 155
pregnancy: and end of schooling for girls, 144; unwanted, 96
Pretoria agreement, 17, 19
prisoners, release of, 150
prosecution of perpetrators, 145, 146–68, 169; support for, 150
prostitution, 81–122 passim, 100–1, 104, 118, 124, 132, 143, 144
proverbs, 7
radicalization, dynamics of, 171–3
radio stations, 77; government-owned, 76
Rajabu, Husain, 22, 78
rape, 144, 155
refugee camps, 29, 30, 35, 36, 49, 76
refugees, 28; category of, 28
relations, maintenance of, 166–7
religion, importance of, 186
resortissants, 174
respect, 58–80 passim
responsibility, 107
Reyntjens, F., 13, 18
Ricardo, P., 181–2
Ruhororo, 30, 35, 36–7, 48, 49, 63, 82, 93, 113, 146, 148, 149, 153, 154, 157, 158, 165, 184, 185
Ruhororo IDP camp, 36, 82, 87, 91, 96, 138, 147, 163, 164, 166; education in, 142; Tutsis in, 184–5
rule of law, 60, 79, 170, 181; absence of, 155
rural–urban brain drain, 88
Rwagasore, Prince Louis, 8, 74; assassination of, 9
Rwanda, 7, 22, 23, 24, 36, 164, 172–3; genocide in, 14; ‘social revolution’ in, 9
safe environments, creation of, 170
safety, 44–7
Search for Common Ground agency, 161
security, 52, 54–7, 78; necessary for development, 184
security sector reform (SSR), 43, 52–3
self-demobilized combatants see demobilization
self-help, 109–12
separation of powers, 65
sexuality, 124; chastity, 124, 135; female, 95
Sierra Leone, 182; civil war in, 124
silence, 145–70; preference for, 159, 169
sinistrés, 67
Smith, Dan, 68
smuggling, 36
social mobility, 84–5
Sommers, Marc, 35
SONERA organization, 11
South Africa, 15, 16, 85, 145
Special Chamber for War Crimes, 146
spousal respect and cooperation, 136, 140–1
state, 78; as milking cow, 11; centralization of, 10; distrust of, 173; loses monopoly of power, 76, 77; modern, 75; relation to, 24, 58–80
structural adjustment, 11
structural factors, 178
talking about the past, 159–60; avoidance of, 152–4
Tanzania, 15, 23,
84
taxation, 8, 114
taxi-vélo, 93
Teitel, Ruti, 145
tradition, upholding of, 133–6
traditional expectations, shift from, 136–41
training, 80
transition in Burundi, 22–3; benefits of, 159
transitional government, creation of, 16
transitional justice see justice, transitional translators, role of, 27–8
transparency, 65
trust, need for, 160
truth: establishment of, 145; telling, 146–68
truth commission, 52, 145–6, 160–1
Tutsi people, 7, 8, 12, 13, 15, 32, 37, 39, 40, 51, 55, 56, 62, 70, 72, 74, 82, 84–5, 86, 97, 109, 121, 122, 149, 150, 163, 164, 172; in government, 16; in legal system, 150; in positions of power, 188; in Ruhororo IDP camp, 184–5; 1988 killings of, 11; 1993 killings of, 12–13, 36; pogroms against, 176; university enrolment of, 90
Tutsi-Banyayuguru, 7
Tutsi-Hima, 7
Twa people, 7, 72; in government, 16
Uganda, 23
unemployment, 102
Union pour le Progrès National (UPRONA), 8–10, 13, 14, 20–1, 37, 74
United Kingdom (UK), 23
United Nations (UN), 23, 53–4, 79, 146; employment in, 118
UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 2, 111
UN Development Assistance Framework, 44
UN peacekeeping mission (ONUB), 103
United States of America (USA), 15, 23
urban slums, neglect of, 121
Urdal, Henrik, 178
violence, 142; as tool of politics, 180; committed out of fear, 155–6; masculinity and, 178–81; micro-politics of, 175; no guarantee of security, 173; sexual, 55
vulnerability, of Burundians, 167
war, 82–4; effect of, on education, 86–7; humiliation of, 76; trauma, 27
water, access to, 40
widows, relations with, 131, 133
womanhood, 124–5
women, 49, 123–44, 167; as embodiment of traditional values, 95; decision-making of, 140; education of, 87, 136; empowerment of, 117; expectations of, 136; forced migration of, 117; healthcare for, 22; in government, 16; independence of, 84; labelled as prostitutes, 143; marginal, 118; sexual abuse of, 97; stories of, 27, 33; views of marriage, 99–100; violence against, 124; young and education, 137–8; young, behavior of, 103–5
young men: and violence, 178–81; dignity of, 182; in the city, 184
young people, 1; definitions of, 2; marginalization of, 102–3; mutual help among, 115; urban, 121
youth programs, 178
Ziegler, J., 70, 71–2