Lines 1–57: The council assembles. Hastings announces that they are there to “determine of the coronation,” asking, “when is the royal day?” The bishop suggests the next day, and Buckingham asks if anyone knows Richard’s mind on the subject. The bishop suggests that Buckingham should, but Buckingham’s response is ambiguous. He suggests that Hastings might know, and, although Hastings denies this, he offers to speak on Richard’s behalf. Richard arrives and Buckingham informs him that Hastings was about to pronounce his “part” on the coronation, implying that Hastings aspires to Richard’s power, and creating an awareness of theater and performance, also emphasized by the word “cue.” Richard seems cheerful and asks the bishop to send for a bowl of strawberries. Richard draws Buckingham aside and reports that Catesby “hath sounded Hastings” and found that he “will lose his head” rather than help depose Prince Edward. They withdraw. Hastings comments on Richard’s good humor and ironically suggests that Richard can never “hide his love or hate.”
Lines 58–106: Richard returns in a changed mood. He angrily claims that people are conspiring his death “with devilish plots / Of damned witchcraft” and have placed “hellish charms” on his body. Hastings suggests that the penalty for such an action must be death. Richard shows them the withered arm he has had since birth, claiming that he has been bewitched by Elizabeth, “that monstrous witch” and “that harlot, strumpet Shore.” Hastings is uncertain, and Richard immediately accuses him of treachery and conspiracy with Mrs. Shore and orders his execution. Too late, Hastings realizes his blindness and recounts the omens that he has ignored, including Margaret’s curses. He makes his own prophecy that England is about to enter “the fearful’st time,” before being led away.
ACT 3 SCENE 5
Richard and Buckingham are dressed in damaged armor, a deliberate choice of “costume” for the events they are about to stage. This theatrical self-awareness is emphasized by Richard asking if Buckingham can pretend to be “distraught and mad with terror” and Buckingham’s assurance that he can “counterfeit the deep tragedian.” Catesby arrives as arranged, bringing the Mayor. Richard and Buckingham feign confusion and appear to be defending the Tower. Lovell and Ratcliffe bring in Hastings’ head and Richard sets about convincing the Mayor that Hastings was a traitor. Buckingham helps, reporting that Hastings, in league with “Mistress Shore,” had plotted to kill Richard. He expresses regret that Lovell and Ratcliffe have already carried out the execution, as he would have liked the Mayor to hear Hastings’ confession so as to reassure the citizens that his execution was necessary. It becomes clear that this episode has been to further Richard’s cause with the English people and to prevent “the censures of the carping world.” After the Mayor has left, Richard sends Buckingham to talk to the citizens of London, slurring the reputation of the old king and suggesting that his children are illegitimate. Buckingham assures him that he will “play the orator.” Richard goes to make secret arrangements “To draw the brats of Clarence out of sight.”
ACT 3 SCENE 6
The opinion of England’s subjects is represented by a scrivener, who comments that the execution of Hastings is a “palpable device” by Richard.
ACT 3 SCENE 7
Lines 1–93: Buckingham reports on his speech, in which he undermined the reputation of King Edward and his children and praised Richard, rallying the crowds to shout “God save Richard, England’s royal king!” In response to this, however, the people “spake not a word” and their silence provides a powerful contrast to the abundance of language so far. Richard is perplexed and angry. Buckingham tells him that the Mayor is coming, advising him to “get a prayer-book” and “stand between two churchmen.” Richard leaves and the Mayor arrives, as does Catesby. Catesby pretends that Richard refuses to see any of them as he is “Divinely bent to meditation” and Buckingham sends him back to ask again. He observes to the Mayor that Richard is “virtuous,” unlike “lewd” Edward, and pretends to be concerned that Richard will not accept the crown, commenting on how difficult it is to draw “holy and devout religious men” from their “zealous contemplation.”
Lines 94–245: Richard appears with two clergymen. Buckingham apologizes for interrupting his devotion and begs that he will listen to their requests. He urges Richard to accept the crown. Initially Richard refuses, allowing Buckingham to repeat all of the persuasive arguments for him and against Edward and his children. The Mayor tells Richard that his citizens “entreat” him to accept, but Richard still feigns reluctance. Finally, he piously accepts the “burden” of kingship.
ACT 4 SCENE 1
Elizabeth, Dorset, and the duchess meet Anne, now Richard’s wife, with a little girl (probably Clarence’s daughter). They are all going to the Tower to visit “the gentle princes,” but Brackenbury refuses them entry on the orders of “the king.” Confused, they question him and he corrects his phrasing to “the Lord Protector.” Elizabeth asserts her right as a mother to see her children and Anne supports her, saying that she will “bear the blame,” but Brackenbury refuses. Derby arrives, bringing the news that Richard is to be crowned and that Anne is to become queen. She is dismayed at these “Despiteful tidings!” Elizabeth instructs her son Dorset to “cross the seas, / And live with Richmond” (the Lancastrian heir). The duchess curses her own womb for bringing forth Richard, a “cockatrice.” Derby urges Anne to go with him, but she would rather die than become queen. As Elizabeth sympathizes, Anne regrets her weakness in believing Richard’s “honey words” and expresses her belief that he means to kill her. As they part, Elizabeth encourages everyone to “look back” at the Tower, and asks that the “ancient stones” will pity her “tender babes.”
ACT 4 SCENE 2
King Richard ascends his throne with the assistance of Buckingham, a visual metaphor of events so far. Establishing the scene’s quick shifts between public and private and demonstrating the increasingly thin margin between Richard’s personal and public personae, he and Buckingham speak aside from the rest of the court. Richard fears his kingship is not safe while Prince Edward lives. Announcing that he will “be plain,” in direct contrast to his usual linguistic style, he asks Buckingham to kill the princes, but Buckingham asks for “some pause” to think. Buckingham leaves. Aside, Catesby observes that Richard is angry; Richard clearly feels that Buckingham is no longer trustworthy. He calls his page and asks quietly if he knows of anyone whom “corrupting gold / Will tempt unto a close exploit of death.” The page suggests a man called Tyrrell. Richard sends the page to fetch him and resolves to himself that Buckingham will “No more” be “neighbor to [his] counsels.” Derby brings the news that Dorset has fled to join Richmond. Drawing Catesby aside, Richard sends him to put about the rumor that Anne is ill “and like to die.” He contemplates his next plan: to marry Elizabeth’s daughter and secure his kingship, which “stands on brittle glass.” The page brings Tyrrell, who agrees to kill the princes. Buckingham returns and claims the “earldom of Hereford,” as promised, but Richard ignores him and continues discussing Richmond with Derby. This division between the two men marks a turning point in the play: Richard becomes increasingly isolated by his desire to retain power and has lost an ally through distrust, recalling Margaret’s curse of Act 1 Scene 3. Realizing that he is out of favor, and therefore in danger, Buckingham flees to Wales.
ACT 4 SCENE 3
Tyrrell reveals that the “bloody act is done.” He is shaken, and describes the remorse of the men he hired to do the killing, “fleshed villains, bloody dogs,” who nonetheless “Melted with tenderness” and wept when they reported to him. He gives a moving description of the princes, “girdling one another / Within their alabaster innocent arms.” Richard arrives and questions Tyrrell: did Tyrrell see the princes’ bodies? Did he see them buried? Richard’s inhumanity is heightened by the contrast with Tyrrell and the hired men, who, despite their harsh natures, still felt remorse for their actions. Tyrrell leaves and Richard contemplates the latest developments in his plans: Cl
arence’s son is imprisoned, his daughter is “meanly matched” in marriage, and Anne is dead. He leaves to “woo” the young Princess Elizabeth. Ratcliffe brings news that “Morton is fled to Richmond” and that Buckingham is increasing his armies. Richard resolves to act: in direct contrast to his earlier reliance on language, he declares that “fearful commenting / Is leaden servitor to dull delay” and prepares to do battle.
ACT 4 SCENE 4
Lines 1–134: Margaret has remained concealed in England, watching the “waning” of her enemies. She hears the duchess and Queen Elizabeth approaching, and again withdraws to watch. As the two women mourn the princes, she comments with satisfaction on their grief, seeing it as revenge for her own losses. She comes forward and points out that her curses have come true: Elizabeth is “a most distressed widow,” has lost her sons, and is “queen of sad mischance.” She starts to leave, but Elizabeth begs her to teach her to curse her enemies. Margaret says that the way to do this is to “Compare dead happiness with living woe” and her grief and therefore her words will pierce like Margaret’s. Margaret leaves and Elizabeth and the duchess vow to smother Richard “in the breath of bitter words.”
Lines 135–444: Richard arrives and the two women launch a bitter attack on him, directly accusing him of killing the princes and Clarence. Reinforcing the attention to disguise, Elizabeth suggests that his “golden crown” conceals a “branded” forehead, a reference to Cain that also emphasizes the accusations of fratricide. Richard calls for trumpets and drums to drown out “these tell-tale women,” saying that he will only listen if they speak courteously. The duchess asserts her right as his mother to speak to Richard, and accuses him of making the earth her “hell.” She curses him, hoping that he will die shamed in battle, and leaves. Elizabeth is about to follow, but Richard detains her. She bitterly comments that she has “no more sons” for Richard to “slaughter,” but he is only interested in her “royal and gracious” daughter. He explains that he wishes to make her his queen and asks how to win her. Queen Elizabeth bitterly suggests that he send her the bleeding hearts of her brothers. Richard attempts to persuade her in a speech that shows his old command over language, but his charming imagery is juxtaposed by the repellent idea of what he is suggesting, which he is either choosing to ignore or genuinely cannot see. Elizabeth points this out, asking if she should say to her daughter that “her father’s brother / Would be her lord?” Echoing the argument with Anne in Act 1 Scene 2, Elizabeth verbally matches Richard, defeating his every move, but he persists until she apparently gives in, although her final words to Richard are ambiguous. However, he chooses to see her as defeated and describes her as a “Relenting fool.”
Lines 445–555: Ratcliffe and Catesby report that Richmond’s navy is approaching the coast, with the intention of joining Buckingham and his army. Richard orders Catesby to go to the Duke of Norfolk, and grows angry when he does not leave. Catesby explains that he has not been given any message for Norfolk, the first sign of genuine weakness in Richard. Derby brings confirmation that Richmond intends “to claim the crown.” Angry, Richard questions Derby’s loyalty and, despite Derby’s assurances, holds his son George hostage until he has mustered his forces to join Richard in battle. A series of messengers bring bad news, until Richard strikes one man before he can even speak, suggesting his increasing loss of self-control. The man reports that Buckingham’s army has been dispersed by floods and that Buckingham is missing. The confusion continues as it is reported first that Richmond is returning to France, and then that he has landed at Milford, but Buckingham has been taken prisoner by Richard’s forces. Richard heads for Salisbury to do battle.
ACT 4 SCENE 5
Derby sends word to Richmond of his support, but explains that Richard is holding his son hostage. He also reveals that Queen Elizabeth has consented to Richmond marrying her daughter.
ACT 5 SCENE 1
Buckingham, under guard, asks to speak to Richard, but is refused. He knows that it is his “doomsday,” and recalls the words of Margaret’s prophecy.
ACT 5 SCENE 2
Richmond’s army marches toward Leicester.
ACT 5 SCENE 3
The action shifts quickly between events and the opposing camps, building pace and tension.
Lines 1–19: Richard and followers pitch his tent in Bosworth Field. The mood is somber, but Richard is cheered by news that the “traitors” number only “six or seven thousand,” a third the size of his own army. They go to survey the battleground.
Lines 20–47: Richmond and followers pitch his tent on the opposite side of the battlefield, a visual representation of their conflict. Richmond is optimistic, seeing the “golden” sunset as a good omen for the following day. The solar imagery returns us to the opening lines of the play and associated ideas of “summer” replacing a “winter of discontent.” Richmond draws up his battle plans and sends Blunt with a “needful note” to Derby.
Lines 48–82: Richard also sends a message to Derby, instructing him to “bring his power / Before sun-rising” or his son will die. He then commands that his horse, “white Surrey,” is saddled for the next day, but complains that he lacks “cheer of mind.” He writes, then sleeps.
Lines 83–121: Derby secretly visits Richmond to assure him of his loyalty, but tells him that he “may not be too forward” because Richard has his son. He leaves, and Richmond prays before sleeping.
Lines 122–224: As both men sleep, a series of Ghosts appears on stage, all victims of Richard. In turn, they approach Richard and curse him for his role in their deaths, repeating that he will “despair and die.” Each Ghost also addresses Richmond, blessing him and wishing him victory. When the last Ghost, that of Buckingham, has spoken, Richard awakes suddenly, crying out: “Give me another horse! Bind up my wounds!” His self-doubt is evident in marked con trast to his earlier confidence and his confusion is clear as he asserts “I am I,” then argues “I am not.”
Lines 225–272: Richmond wakes from “the sweetest sleep.” He reports his “fairest-boding” dream and then addresses his soldiers. His patriotic speech reminds them that “God” and their “good cause” are on their side. He condemns Richard’s tyranny.
Lines 273–354: Richard, observing that the sun “disdains to shine,” issues orders that Derby and his men are to be summoned. He addresses his troops, focusing on the weaknesses of the enemy and describing Richmond as “a paltry fellow.” A messenger informs Richard that Derby has defected, but he has no time to kill his son: the battle has begun.
Lines 355–408: Catesby reports that Richard is fighting on foot, having lost his horse, and is determined to kill Richmond. Richard enters, calling for a horse, but will not withdraw when Catesby asks him to, focusing only on Richmond and sustaining his single-minded desire to retain power until the last. Richmond appears. They fight, and Richard is killed. Richmond declares that “the bloody dog is dead” and claims the throne. He announces his intention to marry Princess Elizabeth, ths uniting “divided York and Lancaster.” As Henry VII, he will restore peace to the long-fractured kingdom.
RICHARD III IN
PERFORMANCE: THE RSC
AND BEYOND
The best way to understand a Shakespeare play is to see it or ideally to participate in it. By examining a range of productions, we may gain a sense of the extraordinary variety of approaches and interpretations that are possible—a variety that gives Shakespeare his unique capacity to be reinvented and made “our contemporary” four centuries after his death.
We begin with a brief overview of the play’s theatrical and cinematic life, offering historical perspectives on how it has been performed. We then analyze in more detail a series of productions staged over the last half-century by the Royal Shakespeare Company. The sense of dialogue between productions that can only occur when a company is dedicated to the revival and investigation of the Shakespeare canon over a long period, together with the uniquely comprehensive archival resource of promptbooks, program notes, r
eviews, and interviews held on behalf of the RSC at the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust in Stratford-upon-Avon, allows an “RSC stage history” to become a crucible in which the chemistry of the play can be explored.
Finally, we hear the voices of an array of practitioners via interviews with a distinguished actor who has played Richard, the director of a highly successful production, and a designer of a complete cycle of Shakespeare’s history plays. After the interviews, there is a brief essay by Richard Eyre on the experience of directing the play and touring it in Eastern Europe.
FOUR CENTURIES OF RICHARD III: AN OVERVIEW
To judge by the number of contemporary references to the play and reprints of the 1597 Quarto, Richard III was an immediate popular success from its first performances in the early 1590s—it did much to make the names of both Shakespeare as playwright and Richard Burbage as leading actor. In his commonplace book, Palladis Tamia (1598), Francis Meres cites it as an example of Shakespeare’s excellence as a writer of tragedies. The success of Burbage’s performance is evidenced in a well-known anecdote recorded in the diary of a law student, John Manningham:
Upon a time when Burbage played Richard III there was a citizen grew so far in liking with him, that before she went from the play she appointed him to come that night unto her by the name of Richard III. Shakespeare overhearing their conclusion went before, was entertained, and at his game ere Burbage came. Then message being brought that Richard III was at the door, Shakespeare caused return to be made that William the Conqueror was before Richard III.1
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