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Notes
[←1 ]
For a discussion of the history of John Bull see Hunt (2003).
[←2 ]
I am grateful to Guy Madison for this observation.
[←3 ]
See Dutton (2012) for more detailed discussions of the nature of this ideology.
[←4 ]
In a highly social species, emphasizing that you are generous is a way of playing for status because generosity is a likeable quality. This leads to a kind of competitive altruism. In addition, such behaviour can be seen to advertise one’s qualities, including genetic qualities, rather like a peacock’s tail. Your qualities are such that you have excess resources and you can survive despite giving away your resources. We will discuss the ‘peacock’s tail’ in detail in the section on sexual selection.
[←5 ]
An earlier version of this chapter was first published in Dutton and Lynn (2015).
[←6 ]
For a detailed examination of intelligence differences in dogs, see Arden and James (2016).
[←7 ]
See Cochran & Harpending, 2009, or Smith & Ahern, 2013, for a more detailed discussion.
[←8 ]
Parts of this chapter were previously published in Dutton (2014).
[←9 ]
For example, the IQ of most Sub-Saharan African countries is between 64 and 75 but in Sudan it is 77.5 (Lynn & Vanhanen, 2012). This is likely a reflection of significant Arab admixture among the Northern Sudanese.
[←10 ]
These are set out in Lynn and Vanhanen (2012).
[←11 ]
Some researchers still cite the 1960s Milwaukee Project as evidence that race differences in IQ are not genetic. This project, which purported to show that environmental intervention could radically improve black IQ, was exposed as fraudulent, the results were never published in a refereed journal, the improvements were found to be temporary, requests for the raw data were refused, and the lead researcher was jailed for fraud (Jensen, 1998).
[←12 ]
There can, of course, be
a subjective element to ‘race’, such as in a situation where a mixed-race person or member of a cline is compelled, by legal procedure, to identify as one race or another. Most obviously, people who are Turkish or Greek are a cline, combining European and South Asian genes to varying extents (see Lynn, 2006). How should they identify themselves? Most Greeks will identify as ‘white’ and are widely accepted as being a European people. However, when Turks identify as ‘white’ this may be regarded as more contentious and many people would argue that they should be regarded as ‘South Asian’, or at least as non-European. But, in general, racial identification is clear and is a matter of genetics.
[←13 ]
For a detailed examination of the extent of English identity in Medieval England see essays in Lavezzo (2004).
[←14 ]
For a summary of the evidence of King Arthur’s existence see Castleden (2003). With regard to Robin Hood, see Baldwin (2010).
[←15 ]
For example, Rushton (2005) notes the people in mixed-race relationships in Hawaii are more psychologically similar than are those in mono-racial relationships. He argues that this is a way of compensating for their relative physical dissimilarity.
[←16 ]
I have deliberately avoided using the term ‘racism’ in this discussion because it is not a neutral, analytical category. It is traditionally defined as the belief that some races are superior to others. However, the term ‘racist’ has been extended far beyond this to refer to anybody who is seen to deviate from ideological orthodoxy with regard to the issue of race. Terming them ‘racist’ associates them with that which is accepted as somehow evil and immoral. As this association is damaging, the term ‘racist’ is an emotionally manipulative means of keeping people on the ‘correct’ ideological path and, clearly, an ad hominem criticism. The essence of the accusation is that the subject has strayed sufficiently far from orthodoxy that he is immoral; he is a heretic. There are many terms of this kind. As Walsham (1999, p. 108) summarizes in her analysis of Early Modern religious non-conformity in England, the accusation of ‘atheist’ was ‘available for the expression and repression of disquiet about “aberrant” mental and behavioural tendencies — for the reinforcement and restatement of theoretical norms’. Both ‘atheist’ and ‘papist’ were ‘categories of deviance to which individuals who were even marginally departed from the prescribed ideals might be assimilated and thereby reproved’.
[←17 ]
For further discussion of this divide within science, see also Chalmers (1999). Kurzban (2010) has argued that, in fact, ‘good science’ is, in reality, science that does not challenge Political Correctness. He uses this term to refer to the ideology which seeks to avoid giving offense to cultural minorities and to promote the status of these minorities in Western nations. For further discussion see Ellis (2004).
[←18 ]
For an interesting analysis of the Roma, see Cvorovic (2014).
[←19 ]
The concept of Malthusian selection was originated by the Rev’d Thomas Malthus (1766–1834), an English vicar, in his book An Essay on the Principle of Population (Johnson, 1798), which was originally published under the pseudonym ‘Joseph Johnson’.
[←20 ]
Parts of this discussion of ‘personality’ were originally published in Dutton and Charlton (2015).
[←21 ]
As an aside, it should be noted that the Flynn Effect has been documented throughout the twentieth century. It refers to a secular rise in IQ scores of about three points per decade in Western countries up until about 1997, when the scores began to decline. However, it has been shown that the increase was on the parts of the IQ test that are the poorest measures of general intelligence and the most influenced by environment. By contrast, the decline has been on general intelligence, which is highly genetic. The ‘rise’, therefore, was not a genuine rise in intelligence, but a reflection of the imperfect nature of IQ tests. These tests measure general intelligence but also narrow intelligence abilities which are weakly correlated with general intelligence. Even though general intelligence was falling, industrialization had created a society which forced us to think in a more and more analytical, scientific way. This ability was pushed up so much that it manifested itself as a secular rise in IQ scores. However, it now appears to have reached its genotypic peak, meaning that the underling fall in intelligence is now revealing itself even on IQ tests (see Dutton & Charlton, 2015).
[←22 ]
In scholarship on ethnicity, it may be noted that both Ernest Gellner and Eric Hobsbawm were Jewish. Both argued that European nationalism was an accident of historical circumstances and that there was nothing primordial or ‘natural’ about it. It could be argued that, in so doing, they were undermining European nationalism and thus promoting Jewish interests. However, I can find no evidence that Gellner, for example, consciously did this. He also turned his intellectual fire on other movements which he regarded as non-rational, such as psychoanalysis, which was founded by a Jewish person (see Gellner, 2008) and cultural anthropology, which was strongly influenced by Boas (Gellner, 1995). A detailed critique of MacDonald’s model has been present by Cofnas (2018) in which it is argued that Jews are significant in all intellectual movements except anti-Semitic ones due to their high intelligence.
[←23 ]
Some pro-Multiculturalism or Marxist groups, it should be said, also draw upon aspects of nationalism, but this will usually involve a form of nationalism which is antithetical to a ‘powerful’ nation, such as Scottish nationalism and its desire to break away from the English (see Dutton, 2002).
Race Differences in Ethnocentrism Page 28
