Hannibal’s Last Battle
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Regulus, Marcus Atilius: Roman consul (257/256, 256/255) and general during the First Punic War. Regulus defeated the Carthaginians in the naval battle of Ecnomus in 256, and then invaded North Africa where he was conquered and captured at the Battle of Tunis in 255 by the Greek mercenary commander Xanthippus.
Salinator, Marcus Livius: Roman consul (219/218, 207/206) and general during the Second Punic War. In 207, Salinator was dispatched to intercept Hasdrubal Barca’s relief army. Along with the other consul of the year, Gaius Claudius Nero, he defeated the Carthaginian general at the Metaurus River, ending any real possibility of a new Punic offensive in Italy.
Scipio, Gnaeus Cornelius: Consul (260/259) and general during the First Punic War. In 260, Scipio directed the construction of the first Roman navy (100 quinqueremes and 20 triremes) from the wreckage of ships on the Italian peninsula, teaching them to row on the shore before sending them to sea against the Carthaginians.
Scipio, Gnaeus Cornelius: Roman general, brother of Publius Cornelius Scipio (‘the Elder’) and uncle of Publius Cornelius Scipio (‘the Younger’ and ‘Africanus’). Scipio was commander of Roman forces in Spain when the Second Punic War began in 218. A year later he was joined by his brother Scipio the Elder, and together beat back Punic influence on the peninsula until both were killed in separate campaigns a month apart in 211.
Scipio, Publius Cornelius Aemilianus (‘Africanus’): Roman consul (147/146, 134/133) and general. Related to Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, Scipio Aemilianus was destined for political preeminence in Rome. In 151, he volunteered to fight in Spain when Roman reverses had severely impacted recruiting, and distinguished himself there and also in North Africa, where his political skills won him respect with Numidian and Carthaginian commanders. When the Third Punic War was bogged down, he was elected as consul and returned to North Africa to end the siege and oversee the destruction of Carthage in 146.
Scipio, Publius Cornelius (‘the Elder’): Roman consul (218/217) and general. Father of Publius Cornelius Scipio (‘the Younger’ and ‘Africanus’) and brother of Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio. Unable to intercept Hannibal’s army on its way from Spain to Italy, Scipio returned to northern Italy, only to be defeated by the Punic general at the Ticinus in 218. A year later he joined his brother Gnaeus in Spain, and together beat back Punic influence on the peninsula until both were killed in separate campaigns in 211 (the Battle of the Upper Baetis).
Scipio, Publius Cornelius (‘the Younger’ and later ‘Africanus’): Roman consul (205/204, 194/193) and general, and son of Scipio the Elder. Scipio Africanus proved to be one of Rome’s greatest statesmen during the mid-Republic and the chief architect of Rome’s rise to supremacy in the western Mediterranean. After the death of his father and uncle in Spain in 211, he was elected as proconsul to Spain at the unprecedented age of 26. By 206 he had driven the Carthaginians out of Iberia, winning brilliant battles at Baecula (208) and Ilipa (206). In 205 he was elected consul and prepared to bring the war directly to North Africa, landing there in 204. He defeated Syphax and Hasdrubal Gisgo at the Battle of the Great Plains (203) and Hannibal Barca at Zama (202), ending the Second Punic War. He returned to Rome and took the cognomen ‘Africanus’. Over the next two decades he was treated as one of Rome’s greatest citizens, rising to the censorship and also assisting his brother Lucius Cornelius Scipio as legate in the eastern campaigns against Antiochus III. His political opponents closed ranks against him at the end of his life, and he died in exile in Campania in 184.
Syphax: King of Numidia. Courted by both Rome and Carthage during the Second Punic War, Syphax sided with Carthage late in the conflict. He was defeated at the Battle of the Great Plains in 203 by Scipio Africanus. He was later captured by a rival Numidian prince, Masinissa, ending his reign.
Varro, Marcus Terentius: Roman consul (216/215) and general during the Second Punic War. Varro was elected consul as a novus homo, or ‘new man’, based on dissatisfaction with the dictatorship of Fabius Maximus. He commanded the Roman forces at the defeat at Cannae in 216 and barely escaped with his life.
Xanthippus: Spartan mercenary general in the service of Carthage during the First Punic War. He was a capable and charismatic leader who was hired to defend Carthage against a Roman invasion of North Africa. In 255, he led his army against the Roman consul Marcus Atilius Regulus and defeated him in the closely fought Battle of Tunis.
Glossary of Military Terms
articulation (tactical): A military term describing the offensive capability of troops. Unarticulated troops usually lacked the drill and discipline to march and fight in close order, and therefore usually fought in static, defensive formations. Well-articulated troops were capable of offensive action in close-order combat.
auxiliaries: Non-citizen troops recruited to serve as valuable extra manpower for the Roman army, as well as specialized tactical roles such as cavalry and light infantry. They were organized into cohorts and alae.
centurion: A professional class of Roman officers who served for long periods of time and provided the backbone of experience for the Roman army. There were sixty centurions per legion and each commanded a century of 60–80 men.
century: The basic subunit of the Roman legion, consisting of between 60 and 80 legionaries. The century was commanded by a centurion and was eventually made up of ten contubernia (groups of eight men who shared a tent and messed together).
consilium: A Roman war council held by commanding generals or commanders to seek advice from military legates, tribunes and other officers.
corvus: (Latin for ‘crow’) A raised gangplank in the bow of the ship with a large spike on the underside. The corvus was Rome’s secret naval weapon in the First Punic War. To overcome their naval inexperience, the Romans dropped the corvus on to one of the more-manoeuvrable Carthaginian ships, and the spike held it in place. The Romans could then board the ship and use their superior marines to take the ship. In effect, they turned naval warfare into land warfare.
decimation: A harsh form of Roman capital punishment administered by legionaries against their own soldiers. It was inflicted on those who had given ground without cause in combat or exposed their neighbours to flank attack. The process of decimation took place after the engagement, when a tenth of the offending unit was chosen by lot, then clubbed to death by their own comrades.
decurion: A Roman cavalry officer who commanded a section of ten horsemen known as a decuria. Three decuriae formed a turma, commanded by the senior decurion. See turma.
equite: A general term for a Roman soldier wealthy enough to equip himself as a cavalryman. Equites date back to the Roman regal period
falcata: A curved, single-edged weapon used by Spanish warriors, derived from the Greek kopis. This weapon’s single edge is on the concave surface of the blade, providing the wielder with a powerful weapon for cut-and-slash attacks.
gladius hispaniensis: A short stabbing sword originally used by the Celtiberians in Spain which became the standard Roman infantry weapon for close-quarter combat during the Second Punic War. Used in conjunction with the large scutum, the gladius became the standard sidearm for legionaries well into the Imperial period.
hastati: The first line of heavy infantry in the legion of the mid-Republican era, recruited from younger men and armed with two pila, gladius, and protected by helmet, body armour and a large, oval scutum shield. See ‘maniple’.
heavy cavalry: Well-armoured horsemen who use shock combat as their primary way of fighting. Heavy cavalry relied on collective effort to be effective, and collective effort required discipline and training.
heavy infantry: Well-armoured foot soldiers who use shock combat as their primary way of fighting. Heavy infantry relied on collective effort to be effective, and collective effort required discipline and training.
legion: Originally a term meaning levy of troops. The legion was the basic battle group of the Roman army made up predominately of citizen infantry. From the 2nd centu
ry BCE it numbered ten cohorts, totalling between 4,000 and 5,000 men.
legionary: The name given to a Roman citizen soldier throughout the entire Roman Republican and Imperial periods. Although his equipment and fighting formation changed over this one thousand year period, he remained the backbone of the Roman fighting force.
light cavalry: Lightly-equipped horsemen who use missile combat as their primary way of fighting. These units were less-heavily armoured than their heavy cavalry counterparts and consequently had greater tactical mobility.
light infantry: Lightly-equipped foot soldiers who use missile combat as their primary way of fighting. These lighter units were less-heavily armoured than their heavier counterparts, and consequently had greater tactical mobility.
maniple: The basic fighting formation of the Republican Roman legion until the end of the Second Punic War. Each maniple consisted of two centuries of one of the three classes of heavy infantry – hastati, princeps or triarii – and would be deployed in the first, second or third line of battle accordingly. There were thirty maniples per legion.
missile combat: A form of warfare where participants use ranged weapons (slings, bows, javelins, throwing spears) against the enemy. Such combat is usually performed by light troops (infantry and cavalry).
onager: A type of crew-served Roman torsion siege engine which fired a medium calibre stone projectile. Torsion engines derive their power from the twisting of a spring mechanism, generally made from a combination of animal sinew and hair.
optio: The professional Roman officer second in command of a century. The optio was hand-picked by the commanding centurion and stood at the rear of the century to maintain order.
peltast: Light infantry skirmishers and screening troops, originally from Thrace, who fought with javelins or spears and who protected themselves with a small, crescent-shaped shield or pelta. The pelta was usually made of wicker and covered with goatskin. Peltasts were used by Greek and Carthaginian commanders to harass enemy heavy infantry or provide protection as their own phalanxes deployed.
pilum: Two different kinds of weighted javelin used by Roman legionaries as a missile weapon designed to break-up enemy formations before shock combat ensued. The light pilum was thrown first at around 35 yards, followed quickly by the heavy pilum.
phalangite: A specialized heavy infantryman in the Hellenistic period who differed from a hoplite in that he who wore very little armour and wielded a sarissa as his main offensive weapon.
phalanx: A close order heavy infantry formation with spearmen arranged in rank and file. This formation was capable of devastating offensive power through the collision and push of its soldiers. There is evidence that this formation dates back to Bronze Age Mesopotamia, though it was certainly perfected by the Greeks and Macedonians during the Archaic, Hellenic and Hellenistic periods.
‘Polybian’ legion: Another name given to the Roman manipular legion of the middle Republican period. Modern historians call this legion the ‘Polybian’ legion because the ancient Roman historian Polybius described its workings.
principes: The second line of heavy infantry in the mid-Republican legion, organized into maniples. These units were armed with sword, pila and protected by helmet, body armour and scutum. They were recruited in the prime of their lives. They fought behind the hastati. See maniple.
quincunx: The checkerboard formation used by the mid-Republican legion in which three lines were deployed with wide intervals between the maniples, the gaps being covered by the maniples of the second line. This formation gave the legion great flexibility, especially in combat against the phalangeal formations from the Hellenistic East.
quinquereme: Larger and taller than a trireme, the quinquereme had a complement of 300 sailors, of which 250 to 270 were rowers and the remainder manned the rigging, masts, and rudders. These vessels could ram enemy ships, but also carried a detachment of between 80 and 120 marines, including archers and catapult operators for offensive missile fire, and swordsmen and spearmen to defend the deck from boarding.
sarissa: A Macedonian pike used by phalangites in a phalanx. Made of cornel wood and tipped with a heavy iron tip and bronze butt-spike, the sarissa ranged from 14 feet to 21 feet in length and was ideally suited for frontal assault.
scorpion: A small Roman torsion siege engine which fired a small-calibre javelin. Torsion engines derive their power from the twisting of a spring mechanism, generally made from a combination of animal sinew and hair.
scutarii: A type of Spanish soldier named after the flat oval shield or scutum they used in battle. These soldiers were some of Hannibal’s best troops in the Second Punic War and a match for Roman infantry.
scutum: A large shield used by Roman legionaries. The early scutum was semi-cylindrical and oval in shape. Later, the shape would change to a rectangle, ideal for close formations. The shield was held by a single, transverse handgrip behind a central boss and was ideally suited to protect the Roman soldier as he wielded his gladius in battle.
shock combat: A form of fighting where participants use close-quarter weapons (swords, axes, maces, thrusting spears) against the enemy. This combat is usually performed by heavy troops (infantry and cavalry) and most often in well-articulated formations.
signifier: The standard bearer for the Roman century. He carried a signum or standard into battle.
slinger, Balearic: A type of light infantry from the Balearic Islands which used a sling for offensive action. Armed with different kinds of slings made from black tufted rush, hair or sinew depending on range and target, the Balearic slingers had a fast rate of fire and were extremely accurate even at long range. The heavy sling could fire a stone the size of a tennis ball over three hundred yards.
triarii: The third and senior line of heavy infantry in the mid-Republican legion. This line was recruited from veteran soldiers who were armed with the long hasta or thrusting spear and protected by helmet, body armour and oval scutum. See maniple.
trireme: A sleek and fast Greek, Phoenician, and later Carthaginian, war galley with a crew of around 200 sailors. Highly manoeuvrable and capable of sinking an enemy vessel with its bronze and wood ram, this type of warship dominated the Mediterranean during the Archaic and Hellenic periods, but was gradually replaced by the larger quinquereme in Roman warfare in the third century BCE.
turma: A squadron of approximately thirty Roman cavalrymen commanded by a decurion. Ten turmae (300 horsemen) made up the normal cavalry contingent for a Roman legion.
velites: Roman light infantry of the early-and mid-Republican legion. These troops were recruited from the capite censi (urban poor) or those too young to serve as heavy infantry. Armed with light javelins and swords and unprotected except for helmets and hide-covered wicker shields, these troops acted as a screen for their heavier-armed and less-mobile comrades, the hastati, principes and triarii.
Glossary of Roman and Carthaginian Government Terms
aedile, curule: An important post in the Roman government held by two men of rank, who, with their two plebeian counter parts, were responsible for care of the streets of Rome, traffic regulations, public order in religious matters and cult practices, and caring for the water supply. They were also in charge of public games, whose expense was usually born by these office holders.
Comitia Centuriata: A Roman legislative body made up of citizens who elected consuls, praetors and censors and who had the power to declare war and ratify peace treaties. Membership in this body was originally based on owning a standard panoply (arms and armour). The Comitia Centuriata had enormous influence in Roman governance by the time of the Punic Wars.
consul: The senior executives of the Roman republic. Every March two men were elected for a one year term to preside over the Senate and assemblies in Rome, govern provinces, and lead armies in war. Initially, only patricians could hold this office, though by the mid-Republic plebeians could also hold one of the two consulships. Minimum age for consul was 41 for patricians and 42 for plebeian candida
tes. Consecutive consulships were against the law, though in times of war successful past consuls were often reappointed.
Council of Elders: The Carthaginian chief assembly made up of about 100 members of the ruling oligarchy very similar to the Roman Senate. This council appointed the two chief magistrates or suffetes who held executive power, and they also appointed military commanders to command the fleet and the army campaigning abroad.
dictator: In times of extreme crisis the Roman Senate appointed a dictator to replace the two consuls for a six month term. His emergency powers gave him supreme authority over the legislative and judicial arms of the Roman government, as well as complete command of the Roman military and immunity from any prosecution after his term was complete.
Fetial priest: The fetial Priests conducted international relations for the Roman Republic, including treaties and declarations of war. There were twenty priests altogether who formed a collegium dating back to Rome’s regal period. Later, these men acted as advisors to the Roman Senate in matters of war and peace. Though they did not make policy, they were sent as ambassadors of Rome to sanctify treaties or declare war.
imperium: The authority to rule during the Roman Republic was called imperium. The scope of Imperium granted depended on the office held (dictators held the most, then consuls, proconsuls, etc.). Magistrates with imperium also had the authority to command the Roman army, with greater offices holding more power. Traditionally, dictators, consuls, proconsuls, and praetors were the only ones allowed to hold this power.
legate: The senior member of a Roman general’s staff of senatorial rank. Legates were often experienced commanders (even ex-consuls) who served less experienced and ambitious colleagues. The legate outranked all military tribunes and often acted as a general’s chief of staff. This position was coveted because legates were granted large shares of the war booty.