26 Bruce Wallace, “Death Returns to the Killing Fields,” Maclean’s, March 1, 1993, p. 32.
27 Prior to UNTAC, the UN’s most ambitious peacekeeping mission had been the UN Transitional Assistance Group in Namibia. There the UN policing component was seen as a success. But Namibia had begun with a much stronger, more professional indigenous police corps, and English was spoken throughout the country, making it easier for English-speaking police to help local forces carry out police work.
28 SVDM, Statement at Site 2, March 30, 1992.
29 Teresa Poole, “Cambodians Take Road Back to the Future,” Independent, March 28, 1992, p. 14.
30 Yuli Ismartono, “Refugees Head Home to Uncertainty and Strife,” Inter Press Service, March 31, 1992; Branigin, "U.N. Starts Cambodian Repatriation.”
31 Philip Shenon,“Peppered with Mines, Awash in Civil War, It Still Is Home for Cambodians,” New York Times, March 30, 1992, p. A3.
32 SVDM, Statement at the Sisophon reception center, March 30, 1992.
33 Teresa Poole, “Cambodians Begin New Life,” Independent, March 31, 1992, p. 16.
CHAPTER 5. “BLACK BOXING” 1 SVDM, “Philosophical History and Real History: The Relevance of Kant’s Political Thought in Current Times,” Geneva International Peace Research Institute, December 4, 1991.
2 UN Security Council, second progress report of the secretary-general on UNTAC, September 21, 1992, para. 29, p. 7.
3 SVDM to Sadako Ogata, “Visit to Party of Democratic Kampuchea (PDK) Zone—6 to 8 April 1992,” April 12, 1992.
4 SVDM to Ogata and Jamshid Anvar, “Report on Visit to Area Controlled by the Party of Democratic Kampuchea (PDK), 6-8 April 1992,” April 10, 1992.
5 Tiziano Terzani, “An Indecent Peace,” Far Eastern Economic Review, June 25, 1992, p. 21.
6 Bruce Wallace, “Death Returns to the Killing Fields,” Maclean’s, March 1, 1993, p. 32.
7 Yasushi Akashi to Tetsuo Miyabara, U.S. General Accounting Office, I-32, August 5, 1993, pp. 1-2, cited in Janet E. Heininger, Peacekeeping in Transition: The United Nations in Cambodia (New York: The Twentieth Century Fund Press, 1994), p. 72.
8 Mats Berdal and Michael Liefer, "Cambodia,” in James Mayall, ed., The New Interventionism1991-1994: United Nations Experience in Cambodia, Former Yugoslavia and Somalia(New York : Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 42; John Sanderson, “UNTAC: Successes and Failures,” in Hugh Smith, ed., International Peacekeeping: Building on the Cambodian Experience (Canberra: Australian Defence Studies Centre, 1994), p. 132.
9 Nayan Chanda, “UN Divisions,” Far Eastern Economic Review, July 23, 1992, p. 9.
10 SVDM, Reginald Austin, and Dennis McNamara to Akashi, strictly confidential memo, June 15, 1992.
11 SVDM, strictly confidential draft discussion paper on Contingency Repatriation Strategy, July 28, 1992.
12 Jean-Claude Pomonti, “Selon un expert français les capacités militaires des Khmers rouges sont surestimées” (According to a French Expert, the Military Capabilities of the Khmer Rouge Are Overestimated), Le Monde, August 22, 1992.
13 SVDM to Christophe Peschoux and Jahanshah Assadi, handwritten note on clipping, September 13, 1992.
14 SVDM to Son Sen, September 3, 1992.
15 SVDM to Ogata and Warren Blatter, “Visit to DK Zone, 30 Sept-1 Oct.”
16 Ibid.
17 SVDM, interview by James S. Sutterlin, May 5, 1998, Yale-UN Oral History, p. 26.
18 W. Courtland Robinson, “Something Like Home Again”: The Repatriation of Cambodian Refugees (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Committee for Refugees, 1994), p. 34.
19 Ibid., p. 37. Robinson, a critic of UNHCR’s failure to disclose all the facts to the returnees, notes: “Good information is both touchstone and cornerstone of safe and voluntary repatriation.”
20 Philip Shenon, “Call of Land Lures Refugees to Khmer Rouge Zone,” New York Times, January 31, 1993.
21 Vieira de Mello also bucked the will of the Security Council. In July 1992, when the Khmer Rouge refused to disarm, the Security Council passed a resolution requesting that the secretary-general ensure that “international assistance to the rehabilitation and reconstruction of Cambodia from now on only benefits the parties which are fulfilling their obligations under the Paris agreement and cooperating fully with UNTAC.” UN Security Council Resolution 766, quoted in Robinson, “Something Like Home Again,” p. 33.
22 Ibid., p. 35.
23 Shenon, “Call of Land.”
CHAPTER 6. WHITE CAR SYNDROME 1 Nate Thayer and Susumu Awanohara, “Cambodia Takes a Bath,” Far Eastern Economic Review, October 15, 1992, p. 56.
2 E.V.K. Fitzgerald, "The Economic Dimension of the Peace Process in Cambodia,” in Peter Utting, ed., Between Hope and Insecurity:The Social Consequences of the Cambodian Peace Process (Geneva: UNRISD Report, 1994), p. 44.
3 Ibid., p. 55.
4 In 1992 and 1993, 65 percent of all UN food aid in Cambodia went to returnees, though they made up just 4 percent of the population. W. Courtland Robinson, “Something Like Home Again”: The Repatriation of Cambodian Refugees (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Committee for Refugees, 1994), p. 59.
5 William Branigin, “Missteps on the Path to Peace; Problems Mount and Budgets Soar,” Washington Post, September 22, 1992, p. A1.
6 The United States, which had made the largest commitment in Tokyo, had only delivered $14 million of its pledged $135 million. Japan, the second-largest donor, had coughed up just $9 million. Report of the Secretary-General on the Implementation of Security Council Resolution 722 (1992), February 13, 1993, para. 31, p. 8.
7 Philip Shenon, “Most Cambodians See Nothing of Aid,” New York Times, February 21, 1993, sec. 1, p. 10.
8 Jarat Chopra, “United Nations Authority in Cambodia,” Watson Institute for International Studies Occasional Paper no. 15, 1994, p. 65.
9 When a UN spokesman was asked whether the entire Bulgarian force could be withdrawn, he acknowledged that they “behave in a manner that makes all of us blush,” but said they could not be repatriated because “it would be a terrible insult” to Bulgaria. William Branigin,“Tarnishing the U.N.’s Image in Cambodia; Bulgarians Chided for Monkey Business,” Washington Post, October 29, 1993, p. A33.
10 A health ministry study found that 77 percent of Cambodians did not know what a condom was. William Branigin, “Key Phases of UN Peace Operation in Cambodia Seen Breaking Down,” Washington Post, October 4, 1992, p. A33.
11 Report on Public Perceptions of UNTAC in the City of Phnom Penh, Information/Education Division Analysis Report, September 18, 1992, p. 102.
12 “French U.N. Army Commander Orders Brothels Removed,”Agence France-Presse, November 1, 1992.
13 Terry McCarthy, “Hot Tempers Rise on the Seamier Side,” Independent, October 19, 1992, p. 12.
14 As on the military side, the quality of UN police varied. Singapore, for instance, sent a designated unit of seventy-five police who had been prescreened for the mission.They had ten years’ police experience and arrived on the heels of a special eight-week training course, where they were taught intercultural communication and lectured in Cambodian history. Janet E. Heininger, Peacekeeping in Transition:The United Nations in Cambodia (New York: The Twentieth Century Fund Press, 1994), p. 80.
15 Nayan Chanda, “Cambodia: I Want to Retake Power,” Far Eastern Economic Review, February 4, 1993, p. 20.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid., p. 28.
18 Nate Thayer, “Cambodia: Legal Weapon,” Far Eastern Economic Review, January 21, 1993; “Khmer Rouge Release 21, but Take 46 More Peacekeepers Captive,” Agence France-Presse, December 17, 1992.
19 Chopra, “United Nations Authority in Cambodia,” p. 27.
20 SVDM to Marrack Goulding, “Our Recent Conversations,” February 12, 1993.
21 Indochina Digest, March 12, 1993, quoted in Chopra, “United Nations Authority in Cambodia,” p. 42.
22 William Branigin, "Montagnards End Fight Against Hanoi,” Washington Post, October 1
1, 1992, p. A46.
23 Nate Thayer, "The Forgotten Army,” Far Eastern Economic Review, September 10, 1992, p. 18.
24 Colonel Y-Pen Ayun to SVDM, handwritten “DECLARATION, September 28, 1992.”
25 SVDM to Lionel Rosenblatt, October 10, 1992.
26 SVDM to UNHCR headquarters, “Chronology of Events,” October 1992.
27 Robinson, “Something Like Home Again,” p. 63.
28 Ron Moreau, “Cambodia: ‘This Is My Home,’” Newsweek, February 22, 1993, p. 38.
29 SVDM, interview by James S. Sutterlin, May 5, 1998, Yale-UN Oral History, p. 15.
30 Robinson, “Something Like Home Again,” p. 46.
31 SVDM, “Refugee Repatriation and Reintegration in Cambodia,” The UNTAC: Debriefingand Lessons, Report and Recommendations of the International Conference, Singapore, August 1994 (London: Kluwer Law International, 1995), p. 151.
32 SVDM to Ogata, “On visit of secretary-general to Cambodia, April 18-20, 1992,” May 6, 1992.
33 Nicholas Cumming-Bruce,“Sixth UNVictim Shot Dead in Cambodia,” Guardian, April 9, 1993, p. 11. The fallout from the incident underscored the fragility of many UN member states’ relationship with UN peacekeeping. In Japan the murder kicked off a debate that had been intensifying throughout the month. The constitution of Japan, the second-largest donor to the United Nations, “renounced war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as a means of settling international disputes.” In 1992 the Japanese parliament passed an international peacekeeping law that allowed six hundred Japanese soldiers and police to join UNTAC. But these troops served as engineers, road builders, and police, and according to law, they would have to be withdrawn if full-fledged war erupted. Some members of Parliament suggested that day had come.
34 “Angola: UN Secretary-General’s Envoy Margaret Antsee Reportedly to Be Replaced,” BBC News, May 11, 1993.
35 “Angola: UN to Appoint New Special Envoy Soon,” Inter Press Service.
36 “Angola Peace Parley Resumes,” Agence France-Presse, May 14, 1993.
37 “Angola: UN to Appoint New Special Envoy Soon,” Inter Press Service. The person chosen in Vieira de Mello’s stead was former Malian foreign minister Alioune Blondin Beye, who arrived in June. Beye died in a plane crash in 1998 as he shuttled between African capitals in pursuit of a settlement.
38 Chopra, “United Nations Authority in Cambodia,” p. 49.
39 “Akashi Declares Campaign a Success Despite Violence,” Agence France-Presse, May 20, 1992.
40 The official budget was $1.6 billion. But if one adds the pledged rehabilitation and repatriation assistance and off-budget costs, the amount came to $2.5-$2.8 billion. Michael W. Doyle, UN Peacekeeping in Cambodia: UNTAC’s Civil Mandate (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 1995), p. 29.
41 SVDM, interview by Sutterlin, p. 25.
42 SVDM to Courtland Robinson, August 9, 1993.
43 SVDM, draft proposal, “Deceit and Estrangement: The Aborted Relationship Between the KR and the Cambodian Peace Process (1989-1993).”
44 SVDM to Ogata, “Clearance to Engage in a Research Project Related to My Cambodia Experience,” September 20, 1993.
45 Christine Dodson to A. Henning, “Mr. Vieira de Mello: Request for Clearance to Engage in a Research Project,” October 29, 1993.
46 Lisa Coulombe to SVDM, June 23, 1992.
47 John Burns, “Sarajevans Jeer as U.N. Leader Urges Restraint,” New York Times, January 1, 1993, p. A1.
48 George Gordon-Lennox and Annick Stevenson, Sergio Vieira de Mello: An Exceptional Man (Geneva: Éditions du Tricorne, 2004), p. 67.
49 In December 1992 the first Bush administration sent 28,000 troops to Somalia to participate in a feeding mission. In May 1993 the Americans departed, handing off peacekeeping tasks to a smaller UN force. The largely non-American successor force was authorized at 28,000 troops, but only 16,000 troops deployed. The larger U.S. mission had deployed only in southern and central Somalia, while the smaller UN force was mandated to secure the whole country. After the June 1993 massacre of twenty-five Pakistani blue helmets, Clinton sent 400 Army Rangers and 130 Delta Forces to Somalia and offered a $25,000 reward for the capture of Somali warlord Mohammed Farah Aideed.
50 Bill Clinton, news conference, October 14, 1993.
CHAPTER 7. “SANDWICHES AT THE GATES” 1 In addition to France’s 3,096 troops, the U.K.’s 2,281, and Spain’s 1,219, other troop contributors on June 1, 1993, included Canada (1,043), Belgium (100), Denmark (186), and Norway (35). The United States fielded 290 troops at a field hospital in Croatia. The main contributors to the UNPROFOR force in Croatia were Argentina (895), Belgium (702), Canada (1,222), Czech Republic (503), Denmark (975), Finland (296), France (2,239), Jordan (918), Kenya (935), Nepal (897), Netherlands (925), Poland (973), Russia (842), Slovakia (404), and the U.K. (250).
2 Five nations flew regularly: the United States, 4,597 flights; France, 2,133; the U.K., 1,902; Canada, 1,860; and Germany, 1,279. Tom Squitieri, “History’s Longest Airlift Ends with Food Delivery to Sarajevo,” USA Today, January 10, 1996, p. 4A. While many UN planes had been hit, a Serb surface-to-air missile had only once brought down a lumbering C-130 and its crew. A small piece of the wreckage from that plane, which crashed in September 1992, killing four Italian crew members, lay in High Commissioner Ogata’s office in Geneva. It sat atop a torn piece of one of the blankets that the plane had been carrying. Sadako Ogata, The Turbulent Decade (New York : Norton, 2005), p. 62.
3 George Gordon-Lennox and Annick Stevenson, Sergio Vieira de Mello: An Exceptional Man (Geneva: Éditions du Tricorne, 2004), p. 70.
4 Bill Clinton, Address to the Nation, October 7, 1993.
5 Bill Clinton, Remarks and an Exchange with Reporters Prior to a Meeting with Members of Congress, October 19, 1993.
6 Ruth Marcus and John Lancaster, "U.S. Pulls Rangers Out of Somalia; Officials Send Conciliatory Signals to Aideed,” Washington Post, October 20, 1993, p. A1.
7 John Lancaster, "Mission Incomplete, Rangers Pack Up; Missteps, Heavy Casualties Marked Futile Hunt in Mogadishu,” Washington Post, October 21, 1993, p. A1.
8 William Shawcross, “The UN Murderers Must Never Be Allowed to Achieve Their Aim,” Daily Telegraph, August 22, 2003, p. 18.
9 Steven A. Holmes, “Word of Bosnian’s Killing Cuts Clinton Briefing Short,” New York Times, January 9, 1993, sec. 1, p. 1.
10 Paul Alexander,“Renowned Soprano Headlines Concert of Peace,” Associated Press, December 31, 1993.
11 Boutros-Ghali liked to quote the White Queen in Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking-Glass,arguing that the Security Council had asked UN forces to do “six impossible things before breakfast.” He wrote, “By helping to evacuate populations threatened by terror or death by advancing forces, the United Nations could be said to be helping ethnic cleansing. And by trying to negotiate cease-fires, the United Nations could be helping to seal the results of the acquisition of territory by force.” Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Unvanquished: A U.S.-U.N. Saga (New York: Random House, 1999), pp. 86-87.
12 Bernard Henri-Lévy, quoted in Roger Cohen “A Balkan Gyre of War, Spinning Onto Film,” New York Times, March 12, 1995, sec. 2, p. 1.
13 Milan Jelovac,“Hrvatska ne može biti cipar” (Croatia Cannot Be Like Cyprus), Danas, June 21, 1994, pp. 7-9.
14 Ibid.
15 “Oproštajna posjeta Serda di mela kód Dr. Harisa Silajdažić” (A Farewell Visit of SVDM with Dr. Haris Silajdžić), Oslobodjenje, February 3, 1994.
16 “In Bosnia’s Bog,” Economist, April 23, 1994, p. 16.
17 Tony Smith, “New British Commander of UN Troops Pledges New, Tougher Aid Approach,” Associated Press Worldstream, February 2, 1994.
18 Ibid.
19 Boutros-Ghali, Unvanquished, p. 141.
20 Michael Rose, Fighting for Peace: Lessons from Bosnia (New York: Warner Books, 1998), p. 35.
21 Ibid., p. 37.
22 Ibid., p. 241.
23 Rose to
ld Bosnian prime minister Haris Silajdžić that he had been misquoted and that he had actually said that he did not want to develop a “siege mentality” in Sarajevo. As Rose later noted, Silajdžić “had chosen to sign up to the lie, probably on the grounds that he did not yet know if I would turn out to be helpful to the Bosnians or not.” Ibid., p. 42.
24 SVDM and Viktor Andreev to Akashi, “Security of Civil Affairs Staff in BH,” January 26, 1994, no. D-SRSG-SAR-0061.
25 “Civil War Between Good and Evil, Say Bosnian Officials,” CNN News, February 5, 1994.
26 John Kifner, “Mourners Fear Gunners Even at Burials,” New York Times, February 8, 1994, p. A15.
27 Paul Adams,“Mortar Attack in Sarajevo Kills at Least 60,” All Things Considered, February 5, 1994.
28 SVDM, interview by De Frente Com Gabi, Sistema Brasileiro de Televisão (SBT), 2002.
29 Rose, Fighting for Peace, p. 47.
30 “Serb Leader Claims No Responsibility in Shelling,” CNN News, February 5, 1994.
31 “Reciprocal Blame in Mortar Attack on Sarajevo Market,” CNN News, February 6, 1994.
32 Mark Heinrich and Robert Block,“Sarajevo Atrocity Turns Market into Bloodbath,” Independent, February 6, 1994, p. 1.
33 Roger Cohen, “NATO Gives Serbs a 10-Day Deadline to Withdraw Guns,” New York Times, February 10, 1994, p. A1.
34 Irish Times, February 8, 1994, p. A1.
35 In 1997 NATO and Russia would create the NATO-Russia Permanent Joint Council, giving Russia a formal tie with the alliance. The agreement that produced the joint council acknowledged the shared security goals of Russia and NATO and, with the tensions over Bosnia very much in mind, described the new body as “the principal venue of consultation between NATO and Russia in times of crisis or for any other situation affecting peace and stability.”
36 Boutros-Ghali, Unvanquished, p. 142.
37 Akashi to Annan, “Use of Air Power,” February 15, 1994, no. CCZ 229. Vieira de Mello was tasked with talking “wobbling” countries out of bombing the Serbs. He coauthored a paper for the British government that U.K. officials later said helped persuade Foreign Secretary Malcolm Rifkind to continue to stand up to the Americans and resist the temptation to bomb. “It always amused me,” Rose later wrote, “that some of the most compelling arguments in the ‘UK Eyes Only’ paper had been drafted by a Brazilian diplomat.” Rose, Fighting for Peace, p. 64.
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