Taxila: An ancient city in the northern Indus valley near modern Islamabad, Pakistan. Its king was an early ally of Alexander in India.
Thebes: Famous city of central Greece defeated and destroyed by Alexander in 335 as a warning to all who would resist him.
Thermopylae: Narrow pass in central Greece where the Spartans and their allies held back the entire invading Persian army in 380 before they were killed to a man.
Thessaly: Region just to the south of Macedonia famous for its cavalry.
Thrace: Land to the east and north of Macedonia inhabited by warlike tribes.
Triballi: Tribe on the Danube defeated by Alexander in 335 during his early campaign in the northern Balkans. They afterward contributed soldiers to his Asian campaign.
trireme: A type of swift and formidable Greek warship propelled by three ranks of rowers with a bronze battering ram in the prow.
Troy: City on the Hellespont in northwest Asia Minor that was the scene of the Trojan War of Greek legend. Excavations at its ruins near modern Canakkale in Turkey have revealed a complex site dating back thousands of years before Alexander’s visit in 334.
Tyre: Ancient Phoenician city, once an offshore island, on the coast of modern Lebanon that was long besieged and finally taken by Alexander in 332.
Vergina: Ancient Aegae, this hillside town overlooks the coastal plains of Macedonia. Excavations here have revealed spectacular royal tombs of the Macedonian kings, including the burial place of Philip. It was also at the theater here that Philip was murdered.
Zoroaster: Greek form of the Persian prophet Zarathushtra, who established a religious tradition based on the opposition of the forces of darkness and light, with Ahuramazda as supreme god.
SOURCE NOTES
AUTHOR’S NOTE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
xxi Epigraph: Arrian Anabasis Book 1, preface.
1. MACEDONIA
1 Epigraph: Plutarch Alexander 3.
1 The solitary messenger: Plutarch Alexander 3. I am indebted to Green Alexander of Macedon 1–3 for the image of the courier riding from Olympia to Philip’s camp.
3 he commanded a special silver coin be struck: See Arnold-Biucchi, Alexander’s Coins and Alexander’s Image, 47.
3 the land of Macedonia: For two excellent and sometimes contradictory introductions to Macedonia and the early history of its royal family, see Hammond, The Macedonian State, and Borza, In the Shadow of Olympus.
4 the savage land of Thrace: Herodotus 5.3–8.
5 to yell at his guards in Macedonian: Plutarch Alexander 51. See also Plutarch Eumenes 14. The question of Macedonian language and ethnic identity is one of the most contentious topics in classical scholarship, the debate often driven more by modern Balkan nationalism than the small amount of ancient evidence we actually possess. I incline to the argument that Macedonian was a distant dialect of Greek rather than a separate language. In any case, the practical result in the age of Alexander was that the Macedonians considered themselves and were considered by others as non-Greeks.
6 According to the Greek historian Herodotus: Herodotus 8.137–139.
7 when the Persians invaded nearby Thrace: Herodotus 5.18–22.
7 He was even chosen as Persian ambassador to Athens: Herodotus 8.140–144.
7 the final battle at Plataea in 479: Herodotus 9.44.
8 After Alexander was assassinated: Curtius 6.11.
8 Perdiccos was murdered by his illegitimate son Archelaus: Plato Gorgias 471.
9 an unsuccessful plot by his wife, Eurydice: Justin 7.4.
10 a hostage to the Greek city of Thebes: Justin 7.5.
11 four thousand Macedonian soldiers lay dead on the battlefield: Diodorus Siculus 16.2.
11 Philip quickly arrested and executed one brother: Diodorus Siculus 16.3.
12 Discipline came first: Diodorus Siculus 16.3; Aelian Varia Historia 14.48.
13 an attack on the Illyrians led by Bardylis: Diodorus Siculus 16.4.
15 “It is said that while still a young man”: Plutarch Alexander 2 (the text mistakenly calls Arybbas her brother, but I have accepted the emendation “brother of her father”). The exact year of this meeting and the ages of Philip and Olympias are uncertain.
15 twin gods known as the Cabiri: Herodotus 2.51.
16 Later stories say that on the night: Plutarch Alexander 2.
17 an enormous snake: Plutarch Alexander 2–3.
17 the great temple of the goddess Artemis: Plutarch Alexander 3; Cicero On Divination 1.47.
18 Alexander’s boyhood at Pella: Plutarch Alexander 4–5.
18 As Alexander said in later years: Plutarch Alexander 22.
18 He was so parsimonious: Plutarch Alexander 25.
19 Lysimachus: Plutarch Alexander 5.
19 One of the earliest stories about Alexander: Plutarch Alexander 5; Curtius 6.5; Diodorus Siculus 16.52.
19 “Boys, my father is beating me to everything”: Plutarch Alexander 5.
20 Saint Paul: Acts 16.
20 Philip laid siege to Methone: Diodorus Siculus 16.31, 34. An ivory miniature from Vergina identified as Philip bears a scar above the right brow. A broken skull from the same site, claimed by some to belong to Philip, is from a man with a damaged right eye.
20 the city of Olynthus: Diodorus Siculus 16.8.
21 Have any of you been paying attention: Demosthenes Olynthiac 1.12–13.
21 The embassy the Athenians sent to Pella: Aeschines Against Timarchus 166–169.
22 a horse named Bucephalas: Plutarch Alexander 6; Diodorus Siculus 17.76; Gellius Attic Nights 5.2; Arrian 5.19; Pliny Natural History 8.44.
23 “Are you fool enough to criticize your elders?”: Plutarch Alexander 6.
24 “My son, you must seek out a kingdom”: Plutarch Alexander 6.
24 Aristotle: Plutarch Alexander 7–8; Diogenes Laertes 5.1.
27 Plutarch describes Alexander: Plutarch Alexander 4.
27 a beautiful Thracian prostitute named Callixeina: Athenaeus 10.435.
27 sex and sleep: Plutarch Alexander 22.
27 only if he could compete against kings: Plutarch Alexander 4.
28 the king left his son at Pella as regent: Plutarch Alexander 9.
29 Chaeronea: Diodorus Siculus 16.84–86.
31 he called for a general assembly: Diodorus Siculus 16.89; Tod Greek Historical Inscriptions #177.
32 Philippeum: Pausanias 5.20.9–10.
33 Philip had no sooner returned to Pella: Plutarch Alexander 9–10.
34 “Look, everyone!”: Plutarch Alexander 9.
34 “The bull is ready for slaughter”: Diodorus Siculus 16.91.
35 Demaratus of Corinth: Plutarch Alexander 9.
35 Pixodarus: Plutarch Alexander 10; Diodorus Siculus 16.74.
37 Your dreams soar higher than the sky: Diodorus Siculus 16.92.
2. GREECE
39 Epigraph: Plutarch Alexander 11.
39 Pausanias: Diodorus Siculus 16.93–94; Justin Epitome 9.6–7; Plutarch Alexander 10.
41 The reported actions of Olympias: Justin 9.7. Justin (11.2) mentions a son of Philip and Cleopatra named Caranus, but most scholars believe he was a later invention.
42 Plutarch records: Plutarch Alexander 10.
42 “The giver of the bride”: Plutarch Alexander 10; Euripides Medea 289.
42 a grand tomb at Vergina: Discovered and excavated by Manolis Andronikos in 1977.
43 Alexander, from Lyncestis: Arrian Anabasis 1.25; Justin 11.2.
43 an assembly of the troops: Justin 11.1.
44 Attalus: Diodorus Siculus 16.93, 17.2, 5; Justin 9.5; Curtius 7.1, 8.1.
45 the Greek cities: Diodorus Siculus 17.3–4; Plutarch Demosthenes 23.
47 Alexander summoned the League of Corinth: Diodorus Siculus 17.4; Arrian Anabasis 1.1; Plutarch Alexander 14.
49 “If I were not Alexander”: Plutarch Alexander 14.
49 the sacred site of Delphi: Plutarch Alexander 14.
49 There was no time for Alexander: The
best source for the northern campaign is Arrian Anabasis 1.1–6.
50 Poneropolis: Fragmenta der griechischen Historiker: 115 F 110.
52 Ptolemy reports: Arrian Anabasis 1.2.
52 Danube: Hesiod Theogony 339. See also Herodotus 4.47–51.
53 Getae: Herodotus 4.93–94.
53 Darius, the Great King of Persia: Herodotus 4.89–143.
53 a pothos, in Greek: Arrian Anabasis 1.3.
54 The soldiers took their tent covers: Xenophon Anabasis 1.5.
55 Triballi: Arrian Anabasis 1.4; Diodorus Siculus 17.3–4.
55 The Celts: Arrian Anabasis 1.4.
56 From the Danube, Alexander struck southwest: For Alexander’s Illyrian campaign, see Arrian Anabasis 1.5–6.
59 the Greek states had once again risen against him: Arrian Anabasis 1.7–10; Diodorus 17.8–15; Plutarch Alexander 11–13; Justin 11.3–4.
60 as Arrian wisely observes: Arrian Anabasis 1.7.
63 As Diodorus says: Diodorus Siculus 17.9.
65 According to Plutarch: Plutarch Alexander 12.
66 the news of the destruction of Thebes: Arrian Anabasis 1.10; Diodorus Siculus 17.15.
66 Phocion: Plutarch Phocion 17.
67 Alexander and his men marched home to Macedonia: Arrian Anabasis 1.11; Diodorus Siculus 17.16.
3. ASIA
69 Epigraph: Isaiah 45.1.
69 There was once a king named Astyages: Herodotus 1.107–123.
72 “Neither snow nor rain”: Herodotus 8.98. This, of course, was borrowed from the Greek historian as the unofficial motto of the U.S. Postal Service.
72 “to ride horses, to shoot the bow, to speak the truth”: Herodotus 1.136.
72 Alexander at last began his war against Persia: Arrian Anabasis 1.11; Justin 11.5; Plutarch Alexander 15; Diodorus Siculus 17.17.
73 Protesilaus: Herodotus 9.116.
74 When the Great King Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont: 7.34–36.
74 and cross from Elaeus: Arrian Anabasis 1.11; Diodorus Siculus 17.17.
74 Alexander’s first act in Asia: Arrian Anabasis 1.11–12; Diodorus Siculus 17.17; Plutarch Alexander 15.
75 “I care little for that harp”: Plutarch Alexander 15.
76 Alexander’s greatest regret, he lamented: Arrian Anabasis 1.12.
76 From Troy, Alexander moved north: Arrian Anabasis 1.12; Justin 11.6.
77 the Granicus River: Arrian Anabasis 1.13–16; Diodorus Siculus 17.19–21; Plutarch Alexander 16.
79 Arrian describes a similar dialogue: Anabasis 1.18, 2.25, 3.10, 18.
82 Alexander son of Philip and all the Greeks: Arrian Anabasis 1.16.
82 He appointed his cavalry commander Calas: Arrian Anabasis 17.
83 Life on the campaign: Plutarch Alexander 23.
84 From the Granicus, Alexander marched south: Arrian Anabasis 17; Diodorus Siculus 17.21; Plutarch Alexander 17.
85 “If Croesus sends a great army against Persia”: Herodotus 1.53–86.
87 the coastal city of Ephesus: Arrian Anabasis 1.17.
87 “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians”: Acts 19.28.
88 The famous painter Apelles: Pliny Natural History 35.92.
89 Miletus: Arrian Anabasis 1.18; Diodorus Siculus 17.22–23.
89 The dedicatory inscription: Tod #184. It is now at the British Museum in London.
91 the reasons given by the historian Arrian: Arrian Anabasis 1.20.
92 Halicarnassus: Arrian Anabasis 1.20–23; Diodorus Siculus 17.23–27.
94 At the seaside town of Iasus: Pliny Natural History 9.8; Tod #190.
98 into the wild highlands of Lycia: Arrian Anabasis 1.24.
98 According to one story: Polyaenus 5.35.
98 the Xanthus River: Plutarch Alexander 17; Arrian Anabasis 1.24.
99 a disturbing report from Parmenion: Arrian Anabasis 1.25; Diodorus Siculus 17.32; Justin 11.7; Curtius 3.7, 7.1.
99 a very high rent for nine months in her womb: Arrian Anabasis 7.12.
100 Mount Climax: Arrian Anabasis 1.26; Diodorus Siculus 14.3.9.
101 a local tribe known as the Marmares: Diodorus Siculus 17.28.
101 Pamphylia: Arrian Anabasis 1.26–28.
102 Gordium: Arrian Anabasis 1.29–2.3; Curtius 3.1.9.
104 Memnon: Arrian Anabasis 2.1–2; Diodorus Siculus 17.29–31; Curtius 3.1.19–21.
4. ISSUS
107 Epigraph: Arrian Anabasis 2.7.
107 The story of the Gordian knot: Arrian Anabasis 2.3; Curtius 3.1.14–18; Plutarch Alexander 18; Justin 11.7.
108 There was an alternate tradition: Herodotus 7.73, 8.138.
108 The second year of Alexander’s campaign: Arrian Anabasis 2.4; Curtius 3.1.22–4.15; Plutarch Alexander 18.
109 Xenophon’s army: Xenophon Anabasis 1.2.21.
110 plunge naked into the Cydnus River: Curtius 3.5; Arrian Anabasis 2.4; Plutarch Alexander 19; Justin 11.8.
110 the Cydnus was famed for its healing properties: Strabo 14.5.12; Pliny Natural History 31.11.
112 a new silver coin: Arnold-Biucchi #7 (page 51).
113 Sardanapalus: Arrian Anabasis 2.5.
114 Amphilochus: Strabo 14.5.16.
114 Harpalus: Arrian Anabasis 3.6.
114 from reading Xenophon: Xenophon Anabasis 1.4.
114 Darius: Curtius 3.2; Diodorus Siculus 17.31; Arrian Anabasis 2.8.
115 Issus: Arrian Anabasis 2.7–11; Curtius 3.8–11; Polybius 12.17; Diodorus Siculus 17.32–35; Plutarch Alexander 20–21; Justin 11.9.
120 the camp of Darius: Arrian Anabasis 2.11–12; Curtius 3.11–13; Plutarch Alexander 20; Diodorus Siculus 17.35–38.
120 “So this is what it means to be a king”: Plutarch Alexander 20.
122 Alexander called a formation: Arrian Anabasis 2.12; Curtius 3.12.
122 the Syrian city of Damascus: Curtius 3.13; Arrian Anabasis 2.11, 15; Plutarch Alexander 21; Justin 11.10; Polyaenus 4.5; Pliny Natural History 7.29; Strabo 13.1.27.
124 Pharnabazus: Arrian Anabasis 2.13.
125 Alexander broke camp at Issus: Arrian Anabasis 2.13–15; Plutarch Alexander 24; Curtius 4.1; Diodorus Siculus 39.1–2.
128 Sidon: Arrian Anabasis 2.15; Curtius 4.1.15; Diodorus Siculus 16.45.
128 Tyre: Arrian Anabasis 2.15–24; Curtius 4.1–4; Diodorus Siculus 17.40–46; Plutarch Alexander 24–25; Justin 11.10.
129 “Do you really think you are safe”: Curtius 4.2.5.
130 Herodotus relates: Herodotus 4.42.
131 The Greek alphabet: Herodotus 5.58.
131 the high priest in Jerusalem: Josephus Jewish Antiquities 11.8.
136 a giant sea monster: Diodorus Siculus 17.41.
139 Josephus: Josephus Jewish Antiquities 11.8.
139 envoys from the Great King: Arrian Anabasis 2.25; Curtius 4.5; Diodorus Siculus 17.48.
140 Gaza: Arrian Anabasis 2.25–27; Curtius 4.6; Herodotus 3.5.
142 Cambyses: Herodotus 3.9–12.
5. EGYPT
143 Epigraph: Herodotus 2.35.
143 the writings of Herodotus: Herodotus 2, 3.17–26, 4.181.
144 Apis: Herodotus 3.27–29.
145 Alexander’s fleet: Arrian Anabasis 3.1; Curtius 4.7.
146 Heliopolis: Herodotus 2.3; Strabo 17.27.
146 Memphis: Herodotus 2.153, 3.27–28.
147 where the king went from Memphis: Arrian Anabasis 3.1; Curtius 4.7–8.
147 Callisthenes deep into Ethiopia: Rose Aristotle fragment 246.
149 he needed a new port: Arrian Anabasis 3.1–2; Plutarch Alexander 26; Curtius 4.8; Diodorus 17.52; Justin 11.11; Strabo 17.1.6–8.
149 There is an island: Plutarch Alexander 26 quoting Homer Odyssey 4.354–355.
149 a pothos or desire seized Alexander: Arrian Anabasis 3.1.
150 Hegelochus: Arrian Anabasis 3.2; Curtius 4.5.
151 a decree to the people of Chios: Todd #192.
151 Siwa: Arrian Anabasis 3.3–4; Plutarch Alexander 26–27; Curtius 4.7; Diodorus Siculus 17.49–51; Strabo 17.1.42�
�43.
152 Pindar sang his praises: Pindar Pythian 4.16; Scholion on Pythian 9.53, fragment 36.
156 the Spring of the Sun: Herodotus 4.181.
157 O paidon: Plutarch Alexander 27.
158 as the historian Arrian says: Arrian Anabasis 3.4.
158 Ptolemy: Arrian Anabasis 3.4. See also Wood 78–82 and the superb details of the Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, maps 73–75.
160 Back at Memphis: Arrian Anabasis 3.5; Curtius 4.8; Strabo 17.1.43.
161 One grateful Egyptian bureaucrat named Petosiris: Kuhrt 2007, 1.460–461.
6. MESOPOTAMIA
163 Epigraph: Babylonian Astronomical Diary for 331 B.C. (Kuhrt 1.447).
163 Samaritans: Curtius 4. 8; Eusebius Chronicles 2.223, 229; Cross “Papyri of the Fourth Century B.C. from Daliyeh.”
164 Tyre: Arrian Anabasis 3.6; Plutarch Alexander 29; Curtius 4.8.
167 the wife of Darius: Plutarch Alexander 30; Diodorus 17.54; Curtius 4.10; Justin 11.12.
167 camp followers: Plutarch Alexander 31.
168 the Macedonians at last reached the town of Thapsacus: Arrian Anabasis 3.7.
169 the Great King was moving his army: Arrian Anabasis 3.7; Diodorus Siculus 17.53.
171 The Macedonians arrived at the Tigris: Arrian Anabasis 3.7; Curtius 4.9; Diodorus Siculus 17.55.
171 an extraordinary event occurred: Arrian Anabasis 3.7; Curtius 4.10; Plutarch Alexander 31.
171 fragmentary Babylonian tablet: Kuhrt 1.447.
172 Ariston: Arrian Anabasis 3.7–8; Curtius 4.9.
173 camel: Plutarch Alexander 31.
173 Alexander ordered his troops: Arrian Anabasis 2.9–11.
176 “Why, don’t you know we’ve already won?”: Plutarch Alexander 32.
176 The army of Darius: Arrian Anabasis 3.11.
177 He now set out with his cavalry force: Arrian Anabasis 3.13–15; Curtius 4.12–16; Diodorus Siculus 17.57–61; Plutarch Alexander 33; Justin 11.14.
179 the broken Babylonian tablet again records: Kuhrt 1.447.
180 the citizens of Greece were horrified: Diodorus Siculus 17.61; Curtius 6.1; Justin 12.1.
182 Ecbatana: Arrian Anabasis 3.16; Diodorus Siculus 17.64; Curtius 5.1; Polybius 10.27.
183 a pool of bitumen: Plutarch Alexander 25; Curtius 5.1; Herodotus 1.179; Strabo 16.1.15.
183 the biblical story of Noah: Genesis 6.14.
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