I thank the Australian Research Council for supporting many of the research projects I reported on in this book. The UQ Early Cognitive Development Center has enabled my colleagues and me to study the minds of infants and children, and a special thanks here goes to Sally Clark as administrator and to the many parents and children who have donated their time to our research over the years. Numerous Australian and international zoological institutions have helped in allowing us to test nonhuman primates over the years. I need to single out especially the support of Alma Park Zoo and the zoos of Rockhampton, Perth, and Adelaide. The chimpanzees Cassie and Ockie have been particularly cooperative over the last decade. Thanks to Graeme Strachan and all supporters of Rockhampton Zoo for making their new enclosure, as well as female companions, a reality.
In the second half of 2010 I finally started writing The Gap in earnest on a sabbatical at the University of Auckland. Special thanks goes to Michael Corballis, Russell Gray, and Niki Harre for their hospitality and support. I made some serious headway during this time. Unfortunately, upon return to Brisbane in January 2011, we had to deal with the aftermath of our house having been flooded. Everything was put on hold as we recovered and rebuilt. I am deeply grateful to all the neighbors, friends, and countless strangers who helped us get back on our feet, and allowed me to refocus on the book writing within a few months.
By that point Peter Tallack’s Science Factory literary agency had signed me on, and with his excellent support I swiftly obtained a contract and, at last, a hard deadline. My deep gratitude goes to him and to my editors at Basic Books, T. J. Kelleher, Tisse Takagi, and Melissa Veronesi, and Beth Wright at Trio Bookworks for their outstanding work and dedication to bringing this project to fruition.
I am grateful for useful comments from friends and experts who took the time to read my half-baked attempts. Note that none of them are responsible for (or guilty of) my opinions, however. Thanks to Emma Collier-Baker, Michael Corballis, Chris Dudgeon, Philip Gerrans, Colin Groves, Niki Harre, Bill von Hippel, Rachel Mackenzie, John McClean, Virginia Slaughter, Peter Tallack, and Jason Tangen for commenting on several chapters. Thanks to Michael Balter, Matt Donaldson, Andy Dong, Claire Harvey, Marc Hauser, Andrew Hill, Simon Lake, Michelle Langley, Chris Moore, Mark Nielsen, Mike Noad, Candi Peterson, Ceri Shipton, and Alex Taylor for thoughtful feedback on individual chapters.
Last but not least, I would like to thank supporters of another of my passions as they helped me stay sane and halfway balanced throughout all this—my football clubs, which have given me so much joy and community: FC Vreden, Borussia Mönchengladbach, Brisbane Roar, Brisbane Olympic FC (Sparta & Sharks), and the West End Partisans. We bond through a passion for the beauty of the game and are willing to sacrifice blood, sweat, and tears for something so inconsequential as the kicking of a ball. We humans sure have peculiar minds. Enjoy yours.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES
(A more comprehensive version of the notes and bibliography can be downloaded from http://psy.uq.edu.au/gap)
Chapter 1: The Last Humans
3Wilhelm Herschel: Holmes, 2008.
4John Herschel: Herschel, 1830.
5Descended from the apes?: For background on the murky history behind this quotation, see the Quote Investigator (February 9, 2011): http://quoteinvestigator.com/2011/02/09/darwinism-hope-pray.
5On the Origin of Species: Darwin, 1859.
6The Descent of Man: Darwin, 1871.
6(Footnote 3) 99.4 percent: Wildman et al., 2003.
6the split occurred some six million years ago: For genetic evidence, see Patterson et al., 2006; for relevant fossil evidence, see Brunet, et al., 2002; Haile-Selassie, 2001; and Senut et al., 2001.
8embodied cognition: e.g., Isanski & West, 2010.
8judge a hill to be steeper: Proffitt, 2006.
9Milan Kundera’s astute reply: Kundera, 1992.
9William James: James, 1890.
9relief from pain: Bateson, 1991.
9“In the distant future: Darwin, 1859, p. 335.
9Even evolutionary psychology: e.g., Barkow et al., 1992.
10textbooks on evolutionary psychology: e.g., Buss, 1999.
10pioneers such as Wolfgang Köhler: e.g., Köhler, 1917/1925.
10arguments for rapid transitions: Gould & Eldredge, 1977.
10Homo floresiensis: Brown et al., 2004.
11Gigantopithecus: Ciochon, 1996.
11(Footnote 6) Traditionally these are: Larick & Ciochon, 1996.
11(Footnote 6) Australopithecus sediba: Berger et al., 2010.
12primary adverse force of nature: Alexander, 1989.
12Guns, Germs, and Steel: Diamond, 1997; see also Flannery, 1994.
12blankets infested with smallpox: Ranlet, 2000.
12The Better Angels of Our Nature: Pinker, 2011a.
12goes back to prehistoric hunter-gatherers: Bowles, 2009; Keeley, 1996.
12–13kill members of their own species: Goodall 1986.
13Neanderthal inheritance: Green et al., 2010.
13Denisovans: Krause et al., 2010.
Chapter 2: Remaining Relatives
15our primate heritage: Groves, 1989.
16it is social problems: Humphrey, 1976.
16It is hardly an exaggeration: Köhler, 1917/1925, p. 293.
16Primates are fond of grooming: e.g., Dunbar, 2010.
16a vervet monkey mother: Cheney & Seyfarth, 1980.
17Achieving high rank: de Waal, 1982; Goodall, 1986.
17Dunbar established that the greater: Dunbar, 1992.
17Taxonomists subdivide primates: e.g., Groves, 1989; Stanford et al., 2013.
18apes grow up slowly: Bogin, 1999.
18Homo sylvestris: Corbey, 2005.
18Carl Linnaeus: Linnaeus, 1758.
19widely used classification: e.g., Stanford et al., 2013.
20They comprise four distinct genera: Geissmann, 2002. For more on gibbons, see http://www.gibbons.de.
21a better model of what our hominin: Fitch, 2000.
21critically endangered: All population estimates for the apes are based on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red list of Threatened Species 2012 (http://www.iucnredlist.org). See also reviews for the United Nations Environment Program, Great Ape Survival Partnership: http://www.unep.org/grasp.
22Hainan black crested gibbon: Stone, 2011.
22“Leakey’s Angels”: Fossey, 1983; Galdikas, 1980; Goodall, 1986.
24stay in the subadult (unflanged) stage: Utami et al., 2002.
25Carel van Schaik: van Schaik et al., 2003.
25Anne Russon and Birute Galdikas: Russon & Galdikas, 1993.
26first draft of the gorilla genome: Scally et al., 2012.
27first initiated by Dian Fossey: Fossey, 1983.
27Recent fecal analyses: Hofreiter et al., 2010.
27Dick Byrne: e.g., Byrne & Russon, 1998.
28a gorilla was observed using a stick: Breuer et al., 2005.
29a previously unknown large population: “Wildlife Conservation Society Discovers ‘Planet of the Apes,’” Wildlife Conservation Society, August 5, 2008, http://archive.wcs.org/gorilladiscovery/press-release.html.
30the social lives of chimpanzees: e.g., Goodall, 1986.
30“chimpanzee politics”: de Waal, 1982.
30boundaries that male groups patrol: Goodall, 1986.
31Hunting primates: Boesch, 1994.
31spear bushbabies: Pruetz & Bertolani, 2007.
31seek out medicinal plants: Huffman, 1997.
31ways of fishing them out: e.g., Whiten et al., 1999.
31(Footnote 9) When Jane Goodall first: Goodall, 1964.
31(Footnote 9) Liberian stamp: Whiten & McGrew, 2001.
31stone hammers and anvils: Boesch, 1990.
31stone tools 4,300 years ago: Mercader et al., 2007.
32only described in 1929: Schwarz, 1929.
32collaboratively hunt monkeys: Surbeck & Hohmann, 2008; Hofreiter et al., 2010.
33a l
ot more sex: de Waal, 1996.
34larger brains are more intelligent: McDaniel, 2005.
34Do humans, then, simply have the largest brains?: For absolute and relative brain weights of various species, see Jerison, 1973; Roth & Dicke, 2005.
34170 billion cells: Azevedo et al., 2009.
35Douglas Adams: Adams, 1979.
35Table 2.1: Jerison, 1973; Roth & Dicke, 2005.
36(Footnote 12) absolute size is the better predictor: Deaner et al., 2007.
36Andrew Whiten and I: Whiten & Suddendorf, 2007.
37differences in internal organization: Preuss, 2000.
37linearly scaled-up primate brains: Herculano-Houzel, 2009.
38relatively smaller in humans: Holloway, 2008.
38(Footnote 13) information flow has reversed: Noack, 2012.
38first documented microscopic distinction: Preuss et al., 1999.
38density is much higher in humans: Elston et al., 2006.
38(Footnote 14) Von Economo neurons: Nimchinsky et al., 1999.
Chapter 3: Minds Comparing Minds
40Daniel Dennett notes: Balter, 2012d.
40for animal welfare: e.g., Lea, 2001; Wise, 2000.
40“the senses and the intuitions: Darwin, 1871, p. 126.
41trying to conceal the evidence: Lindsay, 1880.
41Clever Hans: e.g., Wynne, 2001.
43(Footnote 2) This case has been argued: Shettleworth, 2010.
43(Footnote 3) mentally travel in time: Suddendorf & Corballis, 1997.
43(Footnote 3) some killjoy explanations: Collier-Baker et al., 2004; Suddendorf & Corballis, 2008b.
43(Footnote 3) chimpanzees can notice: Nielsen et al., 2005.
44William James: James, 1890.
44(Footnote 4) evidence that babies assess: Hamlin et al., 2007.
44(Footnote 4) challenged by simpler explanations: Scarf et al., 2012.
45various animals dream: Darwin, 1871.
45pretend play in the second year: e.g., Leslie, 1987.
46Kakama carried a log: Wrangham & Peterson, 1996.
46Andrew Whiten and Dick Byrne: Whiten & Byrne, 1988.
47Sue Savage-Rumbaugh: Savage-Rumbaugh, 1986.
47The gorilla Koko: Patterson & Linden, 1981.
47the chimpanzee Viki: Hayes, 1951.
47stronger behavioral evidence: Leslie, 1987.
48neither extreme view should overlook inconvenient facts: Whiten & Suddendorf, 2007.
49Jean Piaget: Flavell, 1963.
49(Footnote 7): earlier than originally proposed: Baillargeon, 1987.
50great ape genera have passed: Call, 2001b; Collier-Baker et al., 2005.
50domestic dogs were one of: e.g., Gagnon & Doré, 1994.
51dogs had “cheated”: Collier-Baker et al., 2004.
51(Footnote 8) marmosets and gibbons: Mendes & Huber, 2004; Fedor et al., 2008.
51passing all of Piaget’s object permanence tasks: Call, 2001b; Collier-Baker & Suddendorf, 2006.
51Josep Call and others: e.g., Call, 2004, 2006; Hill et al., 2011.
52research on mirror self-recognition: e.g., Suddendorf & Butler, 2013.
52Darwin briefly described: Darwin, 1877.
52Gordon Gallup developed: Gallup, 1970.
52This experiment has been replicated: For reviews, see Swartz et al., 1999; Tomasello & Call, 1997.
52(Footnote 9) gorillas pass: e.g., Posada & Colell, 2007.
53By twenty-four months close to all: e.g., Nielsen & Dissanayake, 2004.
53(Footnote 10) There is some variation: Kaertner et al., 2012.
53(Footnote 10) Bedouin children: Priel & Deschonen, 1986.
53human and chimpanzee infants: Bard et al., 2006.
53baboons, capuchins, and macaques all fail: Anderson & Gallup, 2011.
53conditioned pigeons: Epstein et al., 1981.
54dolphins demonstrated mirror self-recognition: Reiss & Marino, 2001; http://www.pnas.org/content/suppl/2001/05/02/101086398.DC1/0863Movie2.mov.
54Two magpies and one elephant: for magpies, see Prior et al. 2008 and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4mD8velB83w; for the elephant, see Plotnik et al., 2006 and http://www.pnas.org/content/suppl/2006/10/26/0608062103.DC1/08062Movie3.mov.
54we only have strong evidence: Anderson & Gallup, 2011; Suddendorf & Butler, 2013.
54(Footnote 11): failed to make capuchin monkeys “pass”: Roma et al., 2007.
55(Footnote 12) not all passed the task: Swartz et al., 1999.
55Bobtail squid: Jones & Nishiguchi, 2004.
55On the richer side: e.g. Gallup, 1998.
55associated with the emergence of self-conscious emotions: Lewis et al., 1989.
55with the use of personal pronouns: Lewis & Ramsay, 2004.
55Celia Heyes: Heyes, 1994.
55Ulric Neisser: Neisser, 1997.
55Josef Perner: Perner, 1991.
56marked our participants’ legs: Nielsen et al., 2006.
56(Footnote 14) Visual self-recognition in live video: Suddendorf et al., 2007.
56(Footnote 14) Self-recognition in delayed videos: Povinelli et al., 1996; Suddendorf, 1999a.
56(Footnote 14) mirrors and photos involves different: Butler et al., 2012.
57in mirrors around the same time as: e.g., Lewis & Ramsay, 2004; Nielsen & Dissanayake, 2004.
57(Footnote 15): In a review of the research literature: Suddendorf & Whiten, 2001.
58studies on gibbon self-recognition: Hyatt, 1998; Lethmate & Dücker, 1973; Ujhelyi et al., 2000.
58Over the course of a two-year: Suddendorf & Collier-Baker, 2009; http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/suppl/2009/02/24/rspb.2008.1754.DC1/rspb20081754supp04.mpg.
62mirror self-recognition evolved between: Suddendorf & Butler, 2013.
Chapter 4: Talking Apes
63Thanks to words: Huxley, 1956, p. 83.
63the bishop of Polignac: Corbey, 2005.
63language is distinctly human: Corballis, 2003; Deacon, 1997; Hauser et al., 2002; Pinker, 1994.
64animals also have: Hauser, 1996.
65Symbols are about something: e.g., Perner, 1991.
66develop this representational insight: e.g., DeLoache & Burns, 1994.
66even twenty-four-month-olds can: Suddendorf, 2003.
67known as forming a “meta-representation”: e.g., Perner, 1991.
68(Footnote 5) similar to the game Pictionary: Garrod et al., 2007.
69(Footnote 6) less likely to suffer: Diamond, 2010.
71Human languages are generative: e.g., Corballis, 2003.
72Recursion is considered a key: e.g., Corballis, 2011; Hauser et al., 2002.
73this generative grammar: For Chomsky’s recent theorizing and the basic operation he now calls “merge,” see Berwick et al., 2013.
73defines the language faculty: Hauser et al., 2002; for a critique, see Jackendoff & Pinker, 2005; for the debate about recursion, see Corballis, 2011.
73(Footnote 10) Skinner had been enticed: Skinner, 1957.
73predisposed to develop language: Pinker, 1994.
75one hundred thousand years ago: Berwick et al., 2013.
75not present in all human languages: Evans & Levinson, 2009; Everett, 2005.
75Part of the problem may be: Corballis, 2011.
75computational models from evolutionary biology: Levinson & Gray, 2012.
75one study compared word order: Dunn et al., 2011.
76Language is the source: de Saint-Exupéry, 1943.
76Paul Grice: Grice, 1989.
77(Footnote 11) I actually like the word: Suddendorf, 2008.
78Michael Corballis and I have argued: Suddendorf et al., 2009b.
78Friedrich Max Müller: Corballis, 2011; Radick, 2007.
78“I wish someone would keep: Cited by Radick, 2007, p. 31.
78Enter Richard Garner: Radick, 2007; Suddendorf et al., 2012.
79evolution proceeding in leaps: Gould & Eldredge, 1977.
80language first evolved in gestural form: e.g., Corballis
, 2003.
80Dorothy Cheney and Robert Seyfarth: Cheney & Seyfarth, 1990.
81close examinations of communication systems: Hauser, 1996.
81they learn the songs: Garland et al., 2011; Noad et al., 2000.
81just enough to say: Smith et al., 2008.
81alarm calls of prairie dogs: Slobodchikoff et al., 2009.
81a hidden communication system: Mäthger et al., 2009.
81(Footnote 12) Great apes have much more voluntary control: Premack, 2007.
82I cried out a short and good “Hello!”: Kafka, 1917.
82control of the face and voice: Premack, 2007.
82the African grey parrot Alex: Pepperberg, 1987.
83Louis Herman: Herman et al., 1993.
83Seals have also been trained: Schusterman & Gisiner, 1988.
83A border collie, Rico: Kaminski et al., 2004.
83Famous examples include: Washoe (Gardner & Gardner, 1969); Koko (Patterson & Linden, 1981); Chantek (Miles, 1994); Sarah (Premack & Premack, 1983); Kanzi (Savage-Rumbaugh et al., 1993).
83Nim Chimpsky: Terrace, 1979.
83dispute ensued: e.g., Savage-Rumbaugh et al., 1980; Fouts, 1997.
84Valerie Kuhlmeier and Sally Boysen: Kuhlmeier & Boysen, 2002.
84recent analysis of decades of data: Lyn et al., 2011.
84(Footnote 14) Chimpanzees tend to have severe problems: Matsuzawa, 2009.
85“Who are you?”: Patterson, 1991.
85The bonobo Kanzi: Savage-Rumbaugh et al., 1993.
85(Footnote 15) Tamarins have been found: Fitch & Hauser, 2004.
85(Footnote 15) starlings can learn recursive rules: Gentner et al. 2006; but see Corballis, 2007a.
86Steven Pinker, for example, insists: Pinker, 1994.
86Sally Boysen, for example, taught: Boysen & Hallberg, 2000; see also Matsuzawa, 2009.
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