18. Gottlieb’s barebones text: Gottlieb et al. (1981), 250.
19. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report carried Friedman-Kien’s communication: Friedman-Kien. (1981), 305–306.
19. saw a “syndrome” that seemed “strikingly similar”: Pitchenik et al. (1983), 353–354.
19. who became notorious as “Patient Zero”: Shilts (1987), 23. But see also Auerbach et al. (1984), 489.
19. as the man who “carried the virus out of Africa”: e.g., http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaëtan_Dugas.
20. even “gorgeous” in some eyes: Shilts (1987), 21, 47.
20. Dugas himself reckoned: Shilts (1987), 83.
20. and say: “I’ve got gay cancer”: Shilts (1987), 165.
20. “Although the cause of AIDS is unknown”: Auerbach et al. (1984), 490.
21. Randy Shilts later transformed: Shilts (1987), 23.
21. HIV had already arrived in North America when: Gilbert et al. (2007), 18566, 18568.
22. A Danish doctor named Grethe Rask: Shilts (1987), 4–7; Bygbjerg (1983), 925.
22. “I’d better go home to die.”: Shilts (1987), 6. Shilts seems to have interviewed Bygbjerg (but not Rask herself), as well as drawing from Bygbjerg (1983).
22. Nine years later, a sample of Rask’s blood serum: Hooper (1999), 95, 879.
23. GRID was one, standing for: Shilts (1987), 121; Engel (2006), 6.
23. Some doctors preferred ACIDS: Shilts (1987), 138.
23. “Kaposi’s sarcoma and opportunistic infections”: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, June 11, 1982, 294.
23. By September 1982, MMWR had switched: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, September 24, 1982, 507.
24. Montagnier’s research focused mainly: Montagnier (2000), 27–30, 38, 47.
25. “AIDS could not be caused by a conventional bacterium”: Montagnier (2000), 42.
25. The only known human retrovirus as of early 1981: Gallo (1991), 91–93, 99.
25. A related retrovirus, feline leukemia virus: Barré-Sinoussi (2003a), 844.
25. Montagnier’s group in Paris, screening cells: Barré-Sinoussi et al. (1983), 868; Montagnier (2000), 57. Barré-Sinoussi and Montagnier didn’t name it LAV in the original 1983 paper, but slightly later.
26. Gallo’s group came up with: Gallo et al. (1983), 865–866; Gallo (1991), 92–93, 99, 117. Gallo uses Arabic numerals (e.g., HTLV-1, HTLV-2) in his book; but in the scientific papers, he and others use Roman numerals.
26. He called this newest bug HTLV-III: Gallo et al. (1984), 500, 502; Popovic et al. (1984), 497.
26. An editorial in the same issue of Science: Marx (1983), 806.
26. Then again, neither was Gallo’s: Gallo and Montagnier (1988), 44; Gallo (1991), 186; Crewdson (2002), 163–166.
26. Montagnier had personally delivered: Montagnier (2000), 60–62, 68–69.
27. Meanwhile the third team of researchers: Crewdson (2002), 143, 158.
27. “more than 4000 individuals in the world”: Levy et al. (1984), 840.
27. “Our data cannot reflect a contamination”: Levy et al. (1984), 842.
28. A distinguished committee of retrovirologists: Crewdson (2002), 179–180, 236.
29. There she saw a weird problem: Essex and Kanki (1988), 67; Letvin et al. (1983), 2718–2719.
29. they did find a new retrovirus: Daniel et al. (1985); Kanki et al. (1985b).
29. for what soon would be renamed HIV: i.e., they referred to the AIDS virus as HTLV-III and called their macaque virus STLV-III.
29. This discovery, they wrote: Daniel et al. (1985) and Kanki et al. (1985b), last paragraph of each.
29. Only a single sentence at the end: Kanki et al. (1985b), 1201.
30. Kanki and Essex looked at other Asian macaques: Essex and Kanki (1988), 67–68.
30. “In 1985, the highest rates”: Essex and Kanki (1988), 68.
30. Kanki grew isolates of live virus: Kanki et al. (1985b), 952–953.
31. “must have evolved mechanisms”: Essex and Kanki (1988), 68.
31. The samples arrived with coded labeling: Essex and Kanki (1988), 69; Kanki et al. (1986), 238.
31. Despite one possible misstep: Kanki et al. (1986), 238; regarding contamination and confusion, cf. Montagnier (2000), 80–81; Hooper (1999), 108; Kestler et al. (1988), 619, and Essex and Kanki’s reply to Kestler, same issue, 621–622; Barin et al. (1985), 1387.
32. It more closely resembled SIV strains: Barin et al. (1985), 1387.
32. Montagnier and his colleagues screened the blood: Montagnier (2000), 79–81; Clavel et al. (1986), 343–344.
32. This man showed symptoms of AIDS: Clavel et al. (1986), 343–344; Montagnier (2000), 79–80.
32. Eventually, when all parties embraced the label: Clavel (1986), 346; Montagnier (2000), 81.
33. Possibly it was already with us: See Fukasawa et al. (1988), 460; Mulder (1988), 396.
33. when a group of Japanese researchers: Fukasawa et al. (1988), 457.
33. The nucleotide sequence of its retrovirus: Fukasawa et al. (1988), 457, 459; Mulder (1988), 396.
34. A commentary in the journal Nature: Mulder (1988), 396.
35. had noticed a leprosy-like infection: Gormus et al. (2004), 216.
35. not known to be transmissible from people: Wolf et al. (1985), 529.
35. The animal in question, a sooty mangabey: Gormus (2004), 216. The story unfolds from Gormus (in retrospect) to Wolf et al. (1985) to Murphey-Corb et al. (1986).
36. revealed that the virus was quite prevalent among them: Murphey-Corb et al. (1986), 437.
36. Other investigators soon found it too: Hirsch et al. (1989), 389, and its citation notes 9–11.
37. Now there were three known variants: Kanki (1986); Daniel et al. (1985). The SIV name came later, however, after they stopped using HTLV and STLV.
37. “These results suggest that SIVsm has infected macaques”: Hirsch et al. (1989), 389.
38. HIV-2 is confined mostly to West African countries: this sentence and the next three, Reeves and Doms (2002), 1254–1255.
39. Peeters along with several associates was tasked: this paragraph, Peeters et al. (1989), 625–626.
40. announcing the new virus and calling it SIVcpz: Peeters et al. (1989), 625, 627. More precisely, they called it SIVcpz-GAB-1, indicating not just the new strain of virus but the identity of the specific isolate.
40. “It has been suggested that human AIDS”: Peeters et al. (1989), 629.
40. In 1992 Peeters published another: Peeters et al. (1992), 448.
41. not a single one had yielded traces of SIVcpz: Sharp and Hahn (2010), 2488.
42. by the year 2000 seven groups of HIV-2: Reeves and Doms (2002), 1253.
43. So did the later addition, group H: Santiago et al. (2005), 12515.
43. The eventual fourth kind, group P: Plantier et al. (2009), 1–2.
43. Scientists think that each of those twelve groups: Reeves and Doms (2002), 1253 regarding HIV-2; Sharp and Hahn (2010), 2487, regarding HIV-1.
44. In September of that year, a young print-shop worker: Zhu and Ho (1995), 503; Hooper (1999), 21–22, 122 ff.
44. Thirty-one years later, in the era of AIDS: Corbitt et al. (1990), cited in Zhu and Ho (1995).
45. must have reflected a laboratory mistake: Zhu and Ho (1995), 503–504.
45. A team of researchers including Tuofu Zhu: Zhu and Ho (1995), 503–504.
45. a small tube of blood plasma, drawn from a Bantu man: Nahmias et al. (1986), 1279.
45. the only one that tested unambiguously positive: Zhu et al. (1998), 594.
46. In their paper, published in February 1998: Zhu et al. (1998).
46. DRC60 was a biopsy specimen: Worobey et al. (2008), 661.
50. with a spillover as early as 1908: Worobey et al. (2008), 661.
51. This one was heterodox and highly controversial: Hooper (2001), 803. Hooper presents somewhat different numbers in Hooper (1999), 265–277, 378–379.
51. v
iral or bacterial contamination of a vaccine: e.g., with SV40 in some of the Salk vaccines, Shah and Nathanson (1976), 3.
51. a group of Italian children: Willrich (2001), 181.
51. Smallpox vaccine administered to kids in Camden: Willrich (2001), 171–176, 192, 201.
51. a batch of diphtheria antitoxin prepared in St. Louis: Willrich (2001), 178.
51. Formaldehyde was sometimes added: Oshinsky (2006), 281.
52. some of the early batches of the Salk polio vaccine: Shah and Nathanson (1976), 2; Shah (2004), 2061.
52. That the vaccine in question had been given to Africans: Koprowski (2001); Plotkin (2001).
52. Koprowski himself visited Stanleyville: Hooper (1999), 267–273, 523–524.
52. Children and adults lined up trustingly: Hooper (1999), 268–269, 273–274.
52. roughly seventy-five thousand kids: Hooper (1999), 275.
53. chimpanzee kidneys drawn from animals infected: Hooper (2001), 803–805, versus Plotkin (2001), 815–816.
53. The result of that flawed vaccinating: Hooper (2001), 803.
53. certain people have argued: e.g., Hooper, Louis Pascal, William Hamilton, Tom Curtis.
53. had put Tom Curtis onto the story: i.e., Blaine Elswood, as mentioned in Curtis (1992), 3 (pagination of digital version).
53. “The origin of the AIDS virus is of no importance”: Curtis (1992), 21.
53. “It’s distracting, it’s nonproductive”: Curtis (1992), 21.
53. lawyers for Hilary Koprowski filed a lawsuit: Hooper (1999), 254, 456.
54. “The controversy surrounding the source of the Nile”: Hooper (1999), 4.
59. he screened just 27 of the 813 tissue blocks: Worobey (2008), 661, 663.
60. They both fell within the range: Worobey (2008), 661–662.
60. differed by 12 percent between the two versions: actually, 11.7 percent: Worobey (2008), 662.
60. he placed the most recent common ancestor: Worobey (2008), 663, Table 1.
60. “Our estimation of divergence times”: Worobey (2008), 663.
62. “the most persuasive evidence yet”: Weiss and Wrangham (1999), 385.
62. their analysis of viral strains linked it: Gao et al. (1999), 436–437.
62. on viruses drawn from captive chimps: the new chimp in Gao’s data was Marilyn, captive in the United States: Gao et al. (1999), 437.
63. Mario L. Santiago topped a list of coauthors: Santiago et al. (2002), 465.
63. he invented methods: Santiago et al. (2002), 465.
65. they collected 446 samples of chimpanzee dung: Keele et al. (2006), 523.
66. prevalence rates up to 35 percent: Keele et al. (2006), 525, map on 523.
66. a twig amid the same little branch: Keele et al. (2006), 524–525, Figures 3 and 4.
67. shockingly similar to HIV-1 group M: Keele et al. (2006), 525.
68. “We show here that the SIVcpzPtt strain”: Keele et al. (2006), 526.
68. “In humans, direct exposure to animal blood”: Hahn et al. (2000), 611.
68. “The likeliest route of chimpanzee-to-human transmission”: Sharp and Hahn (2010), 2492.
70. Léopoldville contained fewer than ten thousand people: Worobey (2008), 663, Figure 3 and its caption, citing Chitnis et al. (2000).
70. “a hard mission field,” according to one Swedish missionary: Martin (2002), 20, 25.
70. due to colonial policies that discouraged married men: Pepin (2011), 70–73. The rest of this paragraph, and the next: Pepin (2011).
71. a lively market in smoked fish: Harms (1981), 229.
71. Ivory, rubber, and slaves were traded there: Harms (1981), 227–229.
72. By 1940, its population had edged up: Chitnis et al. (2000), 6.
74. apes, elephants, lions, and a few other species were protected: Wildlife Justice, No. 2 (May 2006), 8.
74. Drori gave me a LAGA newsletter: Wildlife Justice, No. 4 (November 2006).
74. Drori’s newsletter mentioned a raid: Wildlife Justice, No. 4 (November 2006), 5.
75. Another bust, against a dealer: Wildlife Justice, No. 4 (November 2006), 5; Wildlife Justice, No. 2 (May 2006), 2, 12.
76. a driver unloading chimpanzee arms and legs: Peterson (2003), 46, 159.
76. roughly 5 million metric tons of bushmeat: Peterson (2003), 65.
80. where Karl Amman saw chimpanzee arms stashed: Peterson (2003), 46.
80. Chimp fecal samples from hereabouts: Keele et al. (2006), 525.
84. possibly of the Mpiemu or the Kako: Giles-Vernick (2002), 22.
94. A study of bushmeat traffic in and around Ouesso: this sentence and the rest of the paragraph: Hennessey and Rogers (2008), 179–183.
109. the prevailing impression was that it’s harmless in chimpanzees: e.g., Novembre et al. (1997), 11748, 11752.
109. When a single lab chimpanzee did progress to AIDS: Novembre et al. (1997), 4086.
110. “survived their own AIDS-like pandemic”: Cohen (2002), 15. Cohen was reporting on de Groot et al. (2002).
110. a naturally occurring infection in more than forty different species: Sharp and Hahn (2010), 2487.
110. it hasn’t shown up among wild monkeys in either Asia: Sharp and Hahn (2010), 2487.
110. none of those SIVs seems to cause immunodeficiency: Sharp and Hahn (2010), 2490.
110. a close similarity between their respective SIVs: Sharp et al. (2005), 3893.
111. That length of time would allow divergence: Sharp et al. (2005), 3893.
111. noticed that SIVcpz seems to be a hybrid virus: Bailes et al. (2003), 1713.
111. Possibly just hundreds of years ago: Wertheim and Worobey (2009), 5–6; Pepin (2011), 41, citing Wertheim and Worobey (2009).
112. What the Nottingham group suggested: Bailes (2003), 1713.
124. these all came together in a paper: Keele et al. (2009), 515.
126. a series of well-intended campaigns: Pepin (2011), 117; Pepin and Labbé (2008).
127. 2 million syringes were produced globally in 1930: Drucker et al. (2001), 1989. See also Marx et al. (2001), 914.
127. treated 5,347 trypanosomiasis cases: Pepin (2011), 122, 163.
127. “The Congo contains various health institutions”: Beheyt (1953), quoted in Pepin (2011), 164.
128. “The large number of patients”: Beheyt (1953), quoted in Pepin (2011), 164.
128. performed 207,089 injections of tryparsamide: this sentence and the rest of the paragraph: Pepin (2011), 125–128.
128. doubt that needles were necessary in any such way: Worobey (2008), in Volberding et al. (2008), 18.
129. It dates back more than a decade: Marx et al. (2001), 911.
129. Jacques Pepin picked up where Preston Marx left off: Pepin and Frost (2011), 421–422.
130. a clinic known as the Dispensaire Antivénérien: Pepin (2011), 160.
130. “consisted of thousands of asymptomatic free women”: Pepin (2011), 161.
130. Any free woman or male migrant: this sentence and the rest of the paragraph, Pepin (2011), 160–163.
132. The HIV-1 group M lineage became split: Taylor et al. (2008), 1591; Worobey (2008), in Volberding (2008), 15.
132. Subtype A got to East Africa: Pepin (2011), 212–213.
132. Subtype D established itself alongside subtypes A and C: Taylor et al. (2008), 1595, Table 2; Hemelaar et al. (2006), W17, Table 2, and W18, Table 3.
133. subtype B crossed from Léopoldville to Haiti: Gilbert et al. (2007), 18566, 18568, Figure 2.
133. new support for one plausible old scenario: The recognition of Haitian professionals having gone to Congo after Independence dates back at least to Shilts (1987), 392–393. This paragraph and the next: Pepin (2011), 187–190.
134. Someone brought back to Haiti: Gilbert et al. (2007), 18566.
134. those samples revealed that 7.8 percent of the women: Boulos et al. (1990), 7222–7223, and cited in Pepin (2011), 196.
134. “there must have been a very effecti
ve amplification mechanism”: Pepin (2011), 196.
135. hundreds of paid plasma donors in Mexico: Pepin (2011), 199.
135. a quarter million luckless donors in China: Pepin (2011), 200.
135. reports of a plasmapheresis center in Port-au-Prince: Pepin (2011), 201–202; Severo (1972). Pepin cites Severo, but I used Severo directly. Pepin hyphenates the name, Hemo-Caribbean, but Severo doesn’t and there’s still such a company, listed online as Hemo Caribbean.
136. ordered that Gorinstein’s plasmapheresis center be closed: Pepin (2011), 202.
136. Nor did the CDC’s Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report mention it: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, July 9, 1982, 31(26): 354.
136. Randy Shilts didn’t mention it: though he came close, discussing Haitians and blood, e.g., Shilts (1987), 135.
137. beginning in 1980 he noticed: Pitchenik et al. (1983), 277, 278, table.
137. He had sounded the first alarm about Haitians: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, July 9, 1982, 31(26): 354ff.
138. Tom Gilbert managed to amplify: Gilbert et al. (2007), 18569.
139. walked into the office of Dr. Michael Gottlieb: Gottlieb et al. (1981), 250.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Auerbach, D. M., W. W. Darrow, H. W. Jaffe, and J. W. Curran. 1984. “Cluster of Cases of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. Patients Linked by Sexual Contact.” The American Journal of Medicine, 76 (3).
Bailes, E., F. Gao, F. Biboilet-Ruche, V. Courgnaud, M. Peeters, P. A. Marx, B. H. Hahn, and P. M. Sharp. 2003. “Hybrid Origin of SIV in Chimpanzees.” Science, 300.
Barin, F., S. M’Boup, F. Denis, P. Kanki, J. S. Allan, T. H. Lee, and M. Essex. 1985. “Serological Evidence for Virus Related to Simian T-Lymphotropic Retrovirus III in Residents of West Africa.” The Lancet, 2.
Barré-Sinoussi, F. 2003a. “The Early Years of HIV Research: Integrating Clinical and Basic Research.” Nature Medicine, 9 (7).
———. 2003b. “Barré-Sinoussi Replies.” Nature Medicine, 9 (7).
Barré-Sinoussi, F., J. C. Cherrmann, F. Rey, M. T. Nugeyre, S. Chamaret, J. Gruest, C. Dauguet, et al. 1983. “Isolation of a T-Lymphotropic Retrovirus from a Patient at Risk for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).” Science, 220.
The Chimp and the River: How AIDS Emerged from an African Forest Page 13
