Deduction The method by which the critic works, using
has assembled.
the general goals of the critical model to guide the search for
Digital Video An increasingly accepted alternative to cel-
supporting evidence.
luloid film, this format captures picture information as an
Deep-Focus Cinematography A style of cinematography
electronic signal in binary code. Images captured on digital
that establishes great depth of field within shots. Gregg
video look different than those captured on film, but, once
Toland’s cinematography for Orson Welles’s Citizen Kane is
in binary format, images can be stored and manipulated by
a classic example of deep-focus composition.
computer programs for editing and special effects work.
Depth of Field The area of distance or separation between
Direct Cinema A documentary style that emerged in the
sharply focused foreground and background objects. Depth
1960s and sought to minimize all appearances that the film-
of field is determined by the focal length of a lens. Wide-
maker was shaping or manipulating the materials of the
angle lenses produce deep focus or great depth of field,
film.
whereas telephoto lenses have a shallow depth of field.
Direct Sound Sound that is captured and recorded directly
Depth Score The way that stereoscopic (3D) space is cho-
on location. Direct sound also designates an absence of re-
reographed on screen in order to express a film’s underlying
flected components in the final recording.
themes and story issues.
Director The member of the production crew who works
Description A stage in creating criticism wherein the critic
closely with the cinematographer, editor, production de-
fully describes those relevant features of narrative or audiovi-
signer, and sound designer to determine a film’s organizing,
sual design on which the critical interpretation will be based.
creative structure. The director is generally the key member
Design Concept The underlying creative concept that orga-
of the production team controlling and synthesizing the
nizes the way in which sets and costumes are built, dressed,
contributions of other team members. On budgetary issues,
and photographed on a given production.
however, the director is answerable to the producer who has
Deviant Plot Structure A narrative whose design and orga-
the highest administrative authority on a production.
nization fails to conform with viewers’ expectations regard-
Displacement A concept in psychoanalytic film theory
ing what is proper or permissible.
whereby repressed ideas, emotions or impulses find a sub-
Dialogue One of the three basic types of film sound, it in-
stitute outlet in disguised form as they are projected onto
cludes speech delivered by characters in a scene and voice-over
nonthreatening aspects of a scene or situation.
narration accompanying a scene or film.
Dissolve A type of visual transition between shots or
Diegetic Sound Sound that can be heard by characters in a
scenes, created by the editor. Unlike the cut, the dis-
scene and by film viewer. See also nondiegetic sound .
solve is a gradual screen transition with distinct optical
characteristics. The editor overlaps the end of one shot
Digital Animation Animation inside three- dimensional com-
with the beginning of the next shot to produce a brief
puter space, aided by software to produce many photographic-
superimposition.
like effects. Digitally created lighting effects, for example, can
be very elaborate, and when used with texture mapping of
Diversification A corporate structure in which a company
skin and other surfaces, these can create remarkable illusions
conducts business operations across a range of associated
of depth.
markets and product categories.
3
Glossary
Documentary A type of film dealing with a person, situa-
Extras Incidental characters in a film, often part of the
tion, or state of affairs that exists independently of the film.
background of a shot or scene.
Documentaries can include a poetic, stylized audiovisual
Eyeline Match The matching of eyelines between two or
design, but they typically exclude the use of overt fictional
more characters who are engaged in conversation or are
elements.
looking at each other in a scene, in order to establish rela-
Documentary Realism A subcategory of the realist mode of
tions of proximity and continuity. The directions in which
screen reality. The documentary realist filmmaker employs
the performers look from shot to shot are complementary.
the camera as a recording instrument to capture events or
That is, if performer A looks screen right in the first shot,
situations that are transpiring independently of the filmmaker.
performer B will look screen left in the next shot.
Documentary realism is also a stylistic construction in that the
Fade A visual transition between shots or scenes created by
filmmaker’s audiovisual design imposes an artistic organiza-
the editor. Unlike the cut, the fade creates a gradual transi-
tion on the event that has unfolded before the camera.
tion with distinct visual characteristics. A fade is visible on
Dolly A type of movable platform on which the camera is
screen as a brief interval with no picture. The editor fades
placed to execute a tracking shot. Tracking shots are some-
one shot to black and then, after a pause, fades in the next
times called dollies or dolly shots.
shot. Editors often use fades to indicate a substantial change
of time or place in the narrative.
Editing The work of joining together shots to assemble
the finished film. Editors select the best shots from the large
Fall-Off The area in a shot where light falls off into
amount of footage the director and cinematographer have
shadow. Fast fall-off occurs in a high-contrast image where
provided and assemble these in the proper narrative order.
the rate of change between the illuminated and shadowed
areas is very quick.
Editor The member of the production crew who, in con-
Fantasy A basic mode of screen reality in which settings
sultation with the director, designs the order and arrange-
and subjects, characters, and narrative time are far removed
ment of shots as they will appear in the finished film and
from the conditions of the viewer’s ordinary life. Fantasy
splices them together to create the final cut.
characters may have super powers or advanced technology
Effects (Sound) One of the three basic types of film sound.
that lends them extraordinary abilities.
Effects are all of the nonspoken, nonmusical sounds in a
Feature Film A film typically running between 90 and 120
film (e.g., footsteps, breaking glass, etc.).
minutes.
Em
ulsion The light-sensitive surface of the film. Light
Female Matte In a matte/counter-matte system, the female
sensitivity varies among film stocks. Fast films feature emul-
matte (also known as a cover matte) is an opaque frame in
sions that are very light sensitive, requiring minimal light for
which the foreground figure is transparent. The opaque area
a good exposure. Slow films feature emulsions that are less
of the female matte blocks light during printing.
light sensitive, requiring more light on the scene or set for
proper exposure.
Feminist Film Theory A model of film theory that ex-
amines the images of women in film and issues of gender
ENR Named for Ernesto N. Rico, this method of film
representation.
processing retains a portion of the silver in film emulsion,
which is normally removed during developing. This has the
Fetishizing Techniques As emphasized in psychoanalytic
effect of making shadows blacker, de-saturating color, and
film theory, these are elements of style that concentrate the
highlighting the texture and edges of surfaces.
viewer’s attention for extended periods upon erotic imagery
or material in a way that displaces other components of a
Errors of Continuity Disruptions in the appropriate flow
scene or shot.
of action or in the proper relation of camera perspectives
from shot to shot. These errors may include the failure to
Fill Light A light placed opposite the key light and used to
match action across shots or to maintain consistent screen
soften the shadows it casts. Along with key and back lights,
direction.
fill light is one of the three principal sources of illumination
in a scene.
Establishing Shot A type of long shot used to establish the
setting or location of a scene. In classical continuity editing,
Film Noir A cycle of crime and detective films popular in
establishing shots occur at the beginning of a scene and help
the U.S. cinema of the 1940s. Low-key lighting was a major
contextualize subsequent close-ups and other partial views
stylistic attribute of this cycle.
of the action.
Film Stock Camera negative identified by manufacturer and
number. Stocks vary in terms of their sensitivity to light, color
Explicit Causality The tight chaining of narrative events
reproduction, amount of grain, contrast, and resolution.
into a strong causal sequence in which prior events directly
and clearly cause subsequent events. Characteristic of
Film Theory A philosophical or aesthetic model that
Hollywood filmmaking.
seeks to explain the fundamental characteristics of the me-
dium of cinema and how it expresses meaning.
Expressionism A basic mode of screen reality in which film-
makers use explicit audiovisual distortions to express extreme
Final Cut The finished edit of a film. The form in which a
or aberrant emotions or perceptions.
film is released to and seen by audiences.
4
Glossary
Flashing A technique used to de-saturate color and con-
Gray Scale A scale used for black-and-white cinematography
trast from a shot and to create a misty, slightly hazy effect.
that measures color intensity or brightness. Black-and-white
Film stock is flashed by exposing it to a small amount of
film and the black-and-white video camera can differentiate
light prior to developing.
colors only if they vary in degrees of brightness. The gray scale
tells filmmakers which colors will separate naturally in black
Flicker Fusion Along with persistence of vision and beta
and white.
movement, this is one of the perceptual foundations on
which the illusion of cinema rests. The human eye cannot
Greenscreening Filming of live actors against a blank and
distinguish the individual still frames of a motion picture
colored (green) screen for subsequent compositing with digi-
because of the speed at which they are projected. Flicker fu-
tal elements.
sion designates the viewer’s inability to perceive the pulsing
Gross The total box office revenue generated by a film be-
flashes of light emitted by the projector. These flashes and
fore expenses are deducted.
the still pictures they illuminate blend together to produce
Hand-Held Camera A camera that is physically held by the
an illusion of movement.
operator rather than being mounted on a tripod, dolly, or
Focal length The distance between the optical center of the
other platform. It permits more freedom of movement and is
lens and the film inside the camera. Lenses of different fo-
especially suited for scenes where the action is spontaneous
cal lengths will “see” the action in front of the camera very
and unpredictable.
differently. See Wide-Angle , Telephoto , Normal , and Zoom Hard Light Light that is not scattered or diffused by filters
Lenses .
or reflecting screens. Hard light can establish high contrast.
Foley The creation of sound effects by live performance in
Hard-Matted Method of producing letterboxed video
a sound recording studio. Foley artists perform sound effects
transfers of widescreen films. The widescreen ratio is pre-
in sync with a scene’s action.
served for viewing on a 4:3 monitor by masking that part of
ForcedPerspective Perspective distortion that takes infor-
the video signal that displays on the top and bottom of the
mational cues about depth and distance—such as the way
monitor’s screen and displaying the widescreen image in the
parallel lines seem to converge in the distance or the way
unmatted area.
objects seem to grow smaller as they get farther away—and
High-Angle A camera angle usually above the eye level of
exaggerates these to convey on the small scale of a miniature
performers in a scene.
model or a matte painting an impression of great size or
High-Definition Video Compared with standard video,
distance.
which has 480 scan lines of picture information, hi-def
Foreground Miniature A miniature model suspended be-
video has up to 1080 scan lines. The Sony/CineAlta HD24P
tween the camera and the set or location and photographed
format, which George Lucas used to shoot the latest install-
as part of the dramatic action.
ments of his Star Wars series, runs at 24 frames per second,
Frame The borders of a projected image or the individual
like film, and carries a resolution of 1920 × 1080 pixels.
still photograph on a strip of film. Frame dimensions are
High-Key Lighting A lighting design that minimizes con-
measured by aspect ratio.
trast and fall-off by creating a bright, even level of illumina-
Framework of Interpretation The intellectual, social, or
tion throughout a scene.
cultural frames of reference that a critic applies to a film
Historical Realism A subcategory of the r
ealist mode of
in order to create a novel interpretation. It is the general
screen reality. Historical realist films aim to recreate in close
intellectual framework within which an interpretation is
detail the manners, mores, settings, and costumes of a dis-
produced.
tant historical period.
French New Wave The group of filmmakers that emerged
Homage A reference in a film to another film or film-
in France beginning in 1959 and whose films broke with
maker. The climatic gun battle on the train station steps in
existing studio style. They were very fond of American films,
Brian De Palma’s The Untouchables (1987) is an homage to
and in time their work influenced such Hollywood films as
Sergei Eisenstein’s The Battleship Potemkin (1925), which
Bonnie and Clyde and Easy Rider.
features the famous massacre on the Odessa steps.
Front Projection Method for simulating locations by
Hue One of the basic attributes of color. Hue designates
projecting location footage from a position in front of the
the color itself. Red, blue, and green are primary hues. They
actors and set.
are not mixtures of any other color.
Genre A type or category of film such as a Western, musi-
Identification A stage in creating criticism wherein the
cal, gangster film, or horror film that follows a set of visual
critic selectively identifies those aspects of the film that are
and narrative patterns that are unique within the genre.
relevant for the critical argument being developed. The
identification of selective film elements enables the critic to
Glass Shot Often used in early cinema, this was a method
simplify and reduce the wealth of material in the film.
for producing a composited image in-camera by filming a
scene with a matte painting on glass used to represent part
Ideological Film Theory A model of film theory that exam-
of the set or location.
ines the representation of social and political issues in film.
5
Glossary
Ideology A system of beliefs characteristic of a society or
Letterbox A method of formatting wide-screen motion
social community. Ideological film theory examines the ways
pictures for video release. Black bars mask the top and bot-
in which films represent and express various ideologies.
tom of the frame, producing a wider ratio picture area in the
center of the frame. While the aspect ratio of a letterboxed
Movies and Meaning- Pearson New International Edition Page 2
