246 By May 1, 1948, 156 interviews: David Pollock, "Denial and Delay," collections from the public record office files deposited in the Action on Smoking and Health archives, UK. Also see the Action on Smoking and Health Tobacco Chronology, http://www .ash.org.uk/ash_669pax88_archive.htm (accessed January 21, 2010).
247 In the early 1940s, a similar notion had gripped: R. A. Fisher and E. B. Ford, "The Spread of a Gene in Natural Conditions in a Colony of the Moth Panaxia diminula L.," Heredity 1 (1947): 143-74.
248 And the notion of using a similar cohort: Stephen Lock, Lois A. Reynolds, and E. M. Tansey, eds., Ashes to Ashes (Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi B.V., 1998), 137.
249 Doll and Hill's study of smoking habits and lung cancer in doctors: Richard Doll and A. Bradford Hill, "The Mortality of Doctors in Relation to Their Smoking Habits: A Preliminary Report," British Medical Journal 1, no. 4877 (1954): 1451-55.
"A thief in the night"
250 By the way, [my cancer]: Evarts Graham, letter to Ernst Wynder, February 6, 1957, Evarts Graham papers.
250 We believe the products that we make: "A Frank Statement to Cigarette Smokers," New York Times, January 4, 1954.
250 Cigarette sales had climbed: See, for instance, Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes (New York: Vintage Books, 1997), 104-6, 123, 125. Also see Verner Grise, U.S. Cigarette Consumption: Past, Present and Future, conference paper, 30th Tobacco Workers Conference, Williamsburg, VA, 1983 (archived at http://tobaccodocuments.org).
250 cigarette industry poured tens, then hundreds: For a succinct history of postwar advertising campaigns of cigarette makers see Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, 80-298.
251 "More doctors smoke Camels": See, for example, Life, October 6, 1952, back cover.
251 At the annual conferences of the American Medical Association: See Martha N. Gardner and Allan M. Brandt, "'The Doctors' Choice Is America's Choice': The Physician in US Cigarette Advertisements, 1930-1953," American Journal of Public Health 96, no. 2 (2006): 222-32.
251 In 1955, when Philip Morris: Katherine M. West, "The Marlboro Man: The Making of an American Image," American Studies at the University of Virginia website, http://xroads.virginia.edu/~CLASS/marlboro/mman.html (accessed December 23, 2009).
251 "Man-sized taste of honest tobacco": Ibid.
251 By the early 1960s, the gross annual sale: Estimated from U.S. Surgeon General's report on per capita consumption rates for 1960-1970.
251 On average, Americans were consuming: Jeffrey E. Harris, "Patterns of Cigarette Smoking," The Health Consequences of Smoking for Women: A Report of the Surgeon General (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1980), 15-342. Also see Allan Brandt, The Cigarette Century, 97.
251 On December 28, 1953, three years before: "Notes on Minutes of the Tobacco Industry Research Committee Meeting--December 28, 1953," John W. Hill papers, "Selected and Related Documents on the Topic of the Hill & Knowlton Public Relations Campaign Formulated on Behalf of the Tobacco Industry Research Committee," State Historical Society of Wisconsin, http://www.ttlaonline.com/HKWIS/12307.pdf (accessed December 23, 2009).
252 The centerpiece of that counterattack: "Frank Statement," New York Times.
253 In January 1954, after a protracted search: Brandt, Cigarette Century, 178.
254 In a guest editorial written for the journal: C. C. Little, "Smoking and Lung Cancer," Cancer Research 16, no. 3 (1956): 183-84.
254 In a stinging rebuttal written to the editor: Evarts A. Graham, "To the Editor of Cancer Research," Cancer Research 16 (1956): 816-17.
254 "We may subject mice, or other laboratory animals": Sir Austin Bradford Hill, Statistical Methods in Clinical and Preventative Medicine (London: Livingstone, 1962), 378.
254 Graham had invented a "smoking machine": Ernst L. Wynder, Evarts A. Graham, and Adele B. Croninger, "Experimental Production of Carcinoma with Cigarette Tar," Cancer Research 13 (1953): 855-64.
255 Forbes magazine had famously spoofed the research: Forbes 72 (1953): 20.
255 Bradford Hill's nine criteria for epidemiology: Sir Austin Bradford Hill, "The Environment and Disease: Association or Causation?" Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 58, no. 5 (1965): 295-300.
256 "Perhaps you have heard that": Letter from Evarts Graham to Alton Ochsner, February 14, 1957, Evarts Graham papers.
257 In the winter of 1954, three years before: Alton Ochsner, Smoking and Cancer: A Doctor's Report (New York: J. Messner, 1954).
"A statement of warning"
258 Our credulity would indeed be strained: Eva Cooper v. R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, 256 F.2d 464 (1st Cir., 1958).
258 Certainly, living in America in the last half: Burson Marsteller (PR firm) internal document, January 1, 1988. Cipollone postverdict document available at the UCSF Legacy Tobacco Documents Library.
258 In the summer of 1963, seven years after: See Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, 254-55.
258 Auerbach's paper describing the lesions: O. Auerbach and A. P. Stout, "The Role of Carcinogens, Especially Those in Cigarette Smoke, in the Production of Precancerous Lesions," Proceedings of the National Cancer Conference 4 (1960): 297-304.
259 Auerbach's three visitors that morning: See Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, 254.
259 In 1961, the American Cancer Society: "The 1964 Report on Smoking and Health," Reports of the Surgeon General, Profiles in Science: National Library of Medicine, http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/NN/Views/Exhibit/narrative/smoking.html (accessed December 26, 2009); U.S. Surgeon General. "Smoking and Health," Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service, Public Health Service publication no. 1103 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, 1964).
260 "a reluctant dragon": Lester Breslow, A History of Cancer Control in the United States, 1946-1971 (Bethesda, MD: U.S. National Cancer Institute, 1979), 4: 24.
260 he announced that he would appoint an advisory committee: U.S. Surgeon General's report: Smoking and Health, 1964.
261 Data, interviews, opinions, and testimonies: Ibid.
261 Each member of the committee: Ibid. Also see Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, 243-45.
262 "The word 'cause,'" the report read: U.S. Surgeon General's report: Smoking and Health.
262 Luther Terry's report, a leatherbound, 387-page: "1964 Report on Smoking and Health."
262 "While the propaganda blast was tremendous": George Weissman memo to Joseph Cullman III, January 11, 1964, Tobacco Documents Online, http://tobaccodocuments.org/landman/1005038559-8561.html (accessed December 26, 2009).
263 the commission's shining piece of lawmaking: Annual Report of the Federal Trade Commission (Washington DC: United States Printing Office, 1950), 65.
263 In 1957, John Blatnik, a Minnesota chemistry teacher: "Making Cigarette Ads Tell the Truth," Harper's, August 1958.
263 The FTC had been revamped: "Government: The Old Lady's New Look," Time, April 16, 1965.
264 A week later, in January 1964: Federal Trade Commission, "Advertising and Labeling of Cigarettes. Notice of Rule-Making Proceeding for Establishment of Trade Regulation Rules," Federal Register, January 22, 1964, 29:530-32.
264 they voluntarily requested regulation by Congress: "The Quiet Victory of the Cigarette Lobby: How It Found the Best Filter Yet--Congress," Atlantic, September 1965.
264 Entitled the Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act: Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act, Title 15, chap. 36, 1965; "Quiet Victory of the Cigarette Lobby."
265 In the early summer of 1967, Banzhaf: John F. Banzhaf III v. Federal Communications Commission et al., 405 F.2d 1082 (D.C. Cir. 1968).
266 "The advertisements in question": Ibid.
266 "a squadron of the best-paid lawyers in the country": John Banzhaf, interview with author, June 2008.
266 "Doubt is our product": "Smoking and Health Proposal," 1969, Brown & Williamson Collection, Legacy Tobacco Documents Library, University of California, San Francisco.
266 In 1968, a worn and skeletal-looking William Talman: A video of the ad is available at http://www.classictvads.com/smoke_1.shtml (accessed December 26, 2009).
267 The last cigarette commercial: See Brandt, Cigarette Century, 271.
267 He had already died: "William Hopper, Actor, Dies; Detective in 'Perry Mason,' 54," New York Times, March 7, 1970.
267 cigarette consumption in America plateaued: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Tobacco Situation and Outlook Report, publication no. TBS-226 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Commodity Economics Division, April 1994) table 2; G. A. Glovino, "Surveillance for Selected Tobacco-Use Behaviors--United States, 1900-1994," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report CDC Surveillance Summaries 43, no. 3 (1994): 1-43.
267 "Statistics," the journalist Paul Brodeur once wrote: Paul Brodeur, Outrageous Misconduct: The Asbestos Industry on Trial (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985).
267 She represented the midpoint: See "Women and Smoking," Report of the U.S. Surgeon General 2001, and prior report from 1980.
268 "[It's] a game only for steady nerves": See, for example, Popular Mechanics, November 1942, back cover.
268 "never twittery, nervous or jittery": Redd Evans and John Jacob Loeb, "Rosie the Riveter" (New York: Paramount Music Corp., 1942).
269 Marc Edell, a New Jersey attorney: For details of Cipollone's case see Cipollone v. Liggett Group, Inc., 505 U.S. 504 (1992).
269 "deaf, dumb and blind": Ibid.
269 In the three decades between 1954 and 1984: Burson Marsteller (PR firm), Position Paper, History of Tobacco Litigation Third Draft, May 10, 1988.
270 "Plaintiff attorneys can read the writing": Burson Marsteller (PR firm), internal document, Cipollone postverdict communication plan, January 1, 1988.
270 In one letter, Fred Panzer: David Michaels, Doubt Is Their Product: How Industry's Assault on Science Threatens Your Health (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 11. Also see Brown and Williamson (B & W), "Smoking and Health Proposal," B & W document no. 680561778-1786, 1969, available at http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/nvs40f00.
270 "In a sense, the tobacco industry may be thought": "Research Planning Memorandum on the Nature of the Tobacco Business and the Crucial Role of Nicotine Therein," April 14, 1972, Anne Landman's Collection, Tobacco Documents Online, http://tobaccodocuments.org/landman/501877121-7129.html (accessed December 26, 2009).
271 "Think of the cigarette pack as a storage container": "Motives and Incentives in Cigarette Smoking," 1972, Anne Landman's Collection, Tobacco Documents Online, http://tobaccodocuments.org/landman/2024273959-3975.html (accessed December 26, 2009).
271 Edell quizzed Liggett's president: Cipollone v. Liggett Group, Inc., et al., transcript of proceedings [excerpt], Tobacco Products Litigation Reporter 3, no. 3 (1988): 3.2261-3.268.
271 the Cipollone cancer trial appeared before the court in 1987: See Cipollone v. Liggett Group, Inc., et al., 893 F.2d 541 (1990); Cipollone v. Liggett Group, Inc., et al., 505 U.S. 504 (1992).
272 By 1994, the per capita consumption of cigarettes in America: "Trends in Tobacco Use," American Lung Association Research and Program Services Epidemiology and Statistics Unit, July 2008, http://www.lungusa.org/finding-cures/for-professionals/epidemiology-and-statistics-rpts.html (accessed December 27, 2009).
272 Among men, the age-adjusted incidence: "Trends in Lung Cancer Morbidity and Mortality," American Lung Association Epidemiology and Statistics Unit, Research and Program Services Division, September 2008, http://www.lungusa.org/finding-cures/for-professionals/epidemiology-and-statistics-rpts.html (accessed December 27, 2009).
272 In 1994, in yet another landmark case: "Mississippi Seeks Damages from Tobacco Companies," New York Times, May 24, 1994.
272 "You caused the health crisis": Ibid.
273 Several other states then followed: "Tobacco Settlement Nets Florida $11.3B," USA Today, August 25, 1997; "Texas Tobacco Deal Is Approved," New York Times, January 17, 1998.
273 In June 1997, facing a barrage: The Master Settlement Agreement is available online from the Office of the Attorney General of California, http://www.ag.ca.gov/tobacco/msa.php (accessed December 27, 2009).
273 Tobacco smoking is now a major preventable cause: Gu et al., "Mortality Attributable to Smoking in China," New England Journal of Medicine 360, no. 2 (2009): 150-59; P. Jha et al., "A Nationally Representative Case-Control Study of Smoking and Death in India," New England Journal of Medicine 358, no. 11 (2008): 1137-47.
273 Richard Peto, an epidemiologist at Oxford: Ibid.
274 In China, lung cancer is already: Gu et al., "Mortality Attributable to Smoking in China."
274 In 2004, tobacco companies signed: Samet et al., "Mexico and the Tobacco Industry," BMJ 3 (2006): 353-55.
274 In the early 1990s, a study noted, British American Tobacco: Gilmore et al., "American Tobacco's Erosion of Health Legislation in Uzbekistan," BMJ 332 (2006): 355-58.
274 Cigarette smoking grew by about 8 percent: Ibid.
274 In a recent editorial in the British Medical Journal: Ernesto Sebrie and Stanton A. Glantz, "The Tobacco Industry in Developing Countries," British Medical Journal 332, no. 7537 (2006): 313-14.
"Curiouser and curiouser"
276 You're under a lot of stress: Transcript of interview with Barry Marshall and an anonymous interviewer, National Health and Medical Research Council archives, Australia.
276 In the early 1970s, for instance, a series of studies: J. S. Harrington, "Asbestos and Mesothelioma in Man," Nature 232, no. 5305 (1971): 54-55; P. Enterline, P. DeCoufle, and V. Henderson, "Mortality in Relation to Occupational Exposure in the Asbestos Industry," Journal of Occupational Medicine 14, no. 12 (1972): 897-903; "Asbestos, the Saver of Lives, Has a Deadly Side," New York Times, January 21, 1973; "New Rules Urged For Asbestos Risk," New York Times, October 5, 1975.
277 In 1971, yet another such study identified: Arthur L. Herbst, Howard Ulfelder, and David C. Poskanzer, New England Journal of Medicine 284, no. 15 (1971): 878-81.
277 In the late 1960s, a bacteriologist named Bruce Ames: Bruce N. Ames et al., "Carcinogens Are Mutagens: A Simple Test System Combining Liver Homogenates for Activation and Bacteria for Detection," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 70, no. 8 (1973): 2281-85; Bruce N. Ames, "An Improved Bacterial Test System for the Detection and Classification of Mutagens and Carcinogens," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 70, no. 3 (1973): 82-786.
278 So did X-rays, benzene compounds, and nitrosoguanidine: "Carcinogens as Frameshift Mutagens: Metabolites and Derivatives of 2-Acetylaminofluorene and Other Aromatic Amine Carcinogens," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 69, no. 11 (1972): 3128-32.
278 Not every known carcinogen scored on the test: For DES, see Ishikawa et al., "Lack of Mutagenicity of Diethylstilbestrol Metabolite and Analog, (+-)-Indenestrols A and B, in Bacterial Assays," Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology 368, nos. 3-4 (1996): 261-65; for asbestos, see K. Szyba and A. Lange, "Presentation of Benzo(a)pyrene to Microsomal Enzymes by Asbestos Fibers in the Salmonella/Mammalian Microsome Mutagenicity Test," Environmental Health Perspectives 51 (1983): 337-41.
278 A biochemistry student at Oxford: Marc A. Shampo and Robert A. Kyle, "Baruch Blumberg--Work on Hepatitis B Virus," Mayo Clinic Proceedings 78, no. 9 (2003): 1186.
279 The work of Baruch Blumberg: Baruch S. Blumberg, "Australia Antigen and the Biology of Hepatitis B," Science 197, no. 4298 (1977): 17-25; Rolf Zetterstom, "Nobel Prize to Baruch Blumberg for the Discovery of the Aetiology of Hepatitis B," Acta Paediatrica 97, no. 3 (2008): 384-87; Shampo and Kyle, "Baruch Blumberg," 1186.
279 Blumberg began to scour far-flung places: A. C. Allison et al., "Haptoglobin Types in British, Spanish, Basque and Nigerian African Populations," Nature 181 (1958): 824-25.
279 In 1964, after a brief tenure at the NIH: Zetterstom, "Nobel Prize to Baruch Blumberg."
279 One blood antigen that intrigued him: Baruch S. Blumberg, Harvey J. Alter, and Sam Visnich, "A 'New' Antigen in Leukemia Sera," Journal of the American Medical Association 191, no. 7 (1965): 541-46.
279 In 1966, Blumberg's lab set out to characterize: Baruch S. Blumberg et al., "A Serum Antigen (Australia Antigen) in Down's Syndrome, Leukemia, and Hepatitis," Annals of Internal Medicine 66, no. 5 (1967): 924-31.
279 Au and hepatitis: Blumberg, "Australia Antigen and the Biology of Hepatitis B."
280 "roughly circular . . . about forty-two nanometers": Baruch Blumberg, Hepatitis B: The Hunt for a Killer Virus (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), 115.
280 By 1969, Japanese researchers: Baruch S. Blumberg, "Australia Antigen and the Biology of Hepatitis B."; K. Okochi and S. Murakami, "Observations on Australia Antigen in Japanese," Vox Sanguinis 15, no. 5 (1968): 374-85.
280 But another illness soon stood out: Blumberg, Hepatitis B, 155.
281 "discipline-determined rigidity of the constituent institutes": Ibid., 72.
281 By 1979, his group had devised one: Ibid., 134-46.
282 "Since the early days of medical bacteriology": J. Robin Warren, "Helicobacter: The Ease and Difficulty of a New Discovery (Nobel Lecture)," ChemMedChem 1, no. 7 (2006): 672-85.
282 Barry Marshall and Robin Warren's discovery of ulcer-causing bacteria: J. R. Warren, "Unidentified Curved Bacteria on Gastric Epithelium in Active Chronic Gastritis," Lancet 321, no. 8336 (1983): 1273-75; Barry J. Marshall and J. Robin Warren, "Unidentified Curved Bacilli in the Stomach of Patients with Gastritis and Peptic Ulceration," Lancet 323, no. 8390 (1984): 1311-15; Barry Marshall, Helicobacter Pioneers: Firsthand Accounts from the Scientists Who Discovered Helicobacters, 1892-1982 (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002); Warren, "Helicobacter: The Ease and Difficulty"; Barry J. Marshall, "Heliobacter Connections," ChemMedChem 1, no. 8 (2006): 783-802.
283 "On the morning of the experiment": Marshall, "Heliobacter Connections."
284 The effect of antibiotic therapy on cancer: Johannes G. Kusters, Arnoud H. M. van Vliet, and Ernst J. Kuipers, "Pathogenesis of Helicobacter pylori Infection," Clinical Microbiology Reviews 19, no. 3 (2006): 449-90.
Siddhartha Mukherjee - The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer Page 63
