Anatomies: A Cultural History of the Human Body

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by Hugh Aldersey-Williams


  Armel, K. C., and V. S. Ramachandran, ‘Acquired Synesthesia in Retinitis Pigmentosa’, Neurocase, vol. 5 (1999), 293–6.

  Bach-y-Rita, Paul, Carter C. Collins, Frank A. Saunders, Benjamin White and Lawrence Scadden, ‘Vision Substitution by Tactile Image Projection, Nature, vol. 221 (1969), 963–4.

  Botvinick, M., and J. Cohen, ‘Rubber Hands “Feel” Touch that the Eye Sees’, Nature, vol. 391 (1998), 756.

  Collignon, Olivier, ‘Functional Specialization for Auditory-Spatial Processing in the Occipital Cortex of Congenitally Blind Humans’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 108 (2011), 4435–40.

  Descartes, René, La Dioptrique (Leiden, 1637).

  Eiberg, Hans, et al., ‘Blue Eye Color in Humans May Be Caused by a Perfectly Associated Founder Mutation in a Regulatory Element Located Within the HERC2 Gene Inhibiting OCA2 Expression’, Human Genetics, vol. 123 (2008), 1777–87.

  Galton, Francis, ‘Family Likeness in Eye-Colour’, Nature, vol. 34 (1886), 137; Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. 40 (1886), 402–16.

  Gaukroger, Stephen, John Schuster and John Sutton, Descartes’ Natural Philosophy (London: Routledge, 2000).

  Gregory, R. L., and J. G. Wallace, ‘Recovery from Early Blindness: A Case Study’, Experimental Psychology Society Monograph, No. 2 (1963).

  Harrison, John E., Synaesthesia: The Strangest Thing (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).

  Ings, Simon, The Eye: A Natural History (London: Bloomsbury, 2007).

  Nabokov, Vladimir, Speak, Memory: An Autobiography Revisited (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967).

  Ogden, Daryl, The Language of the Eyes: Science, Sexuality and Female Vision in English Literature and Culture, 1690–1927 (New York: State University of New York Press, 2005).

  Thompson, William I., Coming into Being: Artifacts and Texts in the Evolution of Consciousness (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1996).

  The Stomach

  Arens, William, The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).

  Brillat-Savarin, Jean Anthelme, The Physiology of Taste, trans. M. F. K. Fisher (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009).

  Buckland, William, ‘Agriculture’, Quarterly Review, vol. 73 (1844), 477–509.

  Burgess, G. H. O., The Curious World of Frank Buckland (London: John Baker, 1967).

  Hare, A. J. C., The Story of My Life, vol. 5 (London: George Allen, 1900).

  Owen, Richard, The Life of Richard Owen (London: John Murray, 1894–5).

  Tiffin, Helen, ‘Pigs, People and Pigoons’, in Laurence Simmons and Philip Armstrong, eds., Knowing Animals (Leiden: Brill, 2007), pp. 244–65.

  The Hand

  Bulwer, John, Chirologia and Chironomia (London, 1644).

  Carroll, Lewis, Through the Looking-glass and What Alice Found There (London: Macmillan, 1996).

  Coren, Stanley, ‘Left-Handedness and Accident-Related Injury Risk’, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 79, no. 8 (August 1989), 1040–41.

  Hepper, Peter, ‘Handedness in the Human Foetus’, Neuropsychologia, vol. 29, no. 11 (1991), 1107–11.

  Hepper, Peter G., Deborah L. Wells and Catherine Lynch, ‘Prenatal Thumb Sucking Is Related to Postnatal Handedness’, Neuropsychologia, vol. 43, no. 3 (2005), 313–15.

  McManus, Chris, Right Hand, Left Hand (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2002).

  Napier, John, Hands (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980).

  Rahman, A. A., et al., ‘Hand Pattern Indicates Prostate Cancer Risk’, British Journal of Cancer, vol. 104 (2011), 175–7.

  Smith, Richard Langham, programme note to CD 452 448-2 (London: Decca, 1996).

  Tallis, Raymond, Michelangelo’s Finger (London: Atlantic Books, 2010).

  Tallis, Raymond, The Hand: A Philosophical Enquiry into Human Being (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2003).

  Trumble, Angus, The Finger: A Handbook (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010).

  Weyl, Hermann, Symmetry (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1952).

  Wilson, Glenn D., ‘Fingers to Feminism: The Rise of 2D:4D’, Quarterly Review, vol. 4 (2010), 25–32.

  Wolff, Charlotte, The Human Hand (London: Methuen, 1942).

  Wolpert, Lewis, ‘Development of the Asymmetric Human’, Biological Review, vol. 13, suppl. 2 (2003), 97–103.

  The Sex

  Ashley, April, with Douglas Thompson, The First Lady (London: John Blake, 2006).

  Barthes, Roland, Mythologies, trans. Annette Lavers (New York: Hill and Wang, 1972).

  Clark, Kenneth, The Nude: A Study of Ideal Art (London: John Murray, 1956).

  Cook, Edward Tyas, The Life of John Ruskin (London: G. Allen, 1911).

  Davidson, Keay, Carl Sagan: A Life (New York: Wiley, 1999).

  Harper, Catherine, Intersex (Oxford: Berg, 2007).

  Howard, Seymour, ‘Fig Leaf, Pudica, Nudity, and Other Revealing Concealments’, American Imago, vol. 43 (1986), 289–93.

  Johnson, Olive Skene, The Sexual Spectrum: Why We’re All Different (Vancouver: Raincoast Books, 2004).

  Sagan, Carl, The Cosmic Connection: An Extraterrestrial Perspective (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1973).

  Stainton Rogers, Wendy, and Rex Stainton Rogers, The Psychology of Gender and Sexuality (Buckingham: Open University Press, 2001).

  The Foot

  Defoe, Daniel, Robinson Crusoe (London: Penguin, 2001).

  Hume, David, Enquiries Concerning Human Understanding and Concerning the Principles of Morals, ed. L. A. Selby-Bigge and P. H. Nidditch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975).

  Mark, Darren F., Silvia Gonzales, David Huddart and Harald Böhnel, ‘Dating of the Valsequillo Volcanic Deposits: Resolution of an Ongoing Archaeological Controversy in Central Mexico’, Journal of Human Evolution, vol. 58 (2010), 441–5.

  McAllister, Peter, Manthropology: The Science of the Inadequate Modern Male (New York: St Martin’s Press, 2010).

  Webb, Steve, ‘Further Research of the Willandra Lakes Fossil Footprint Site, Southeastern Australia’, Journal of Human Evolution, vol. 52 (2007), 711–15.

  Webb, Steve, Matthew L. Cupper and Richard Robins, ‘Pleistocene Human Footprints from the Willandra Lakes, Southeastern Australia’, Journal of Human Evolution, vol. 50 (2006), 405–13.

  The Skin

  ‘A Lover of Physick and Surgery’, An Essay Concerning the Infinite Wisdom of God, Manifested in the Contrivance and Structure of the Skin (London: Joseph Marshall, 1724).

  Ableman, Paul, Anatomy of Nakedness (London: Orbis, 1982).

  Beales, Peter, Classic Roses (London: Harvill, 2004).

  Caplan, Jane, ed., Written on the Body: The Tattoo in European and American History (London: Reaktion, 2000).

  Connor, Steven, The Book of Skin (London: Reaktion, 2004).

  Darwin, Charles, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: John Murray, 1872).

  Hoffman, Banesh, Einstein: Creator and Rebel (New York: Viking, 1972).

  Lutyens, Mary, Millais and the Ruskins (London: John Murray, 1967).

  Thompson, Peter, ‘Margaret Thatcher: A New Illusion’, Perception, vol. 9 (1980), 483–4.

  Thomson, Arthur, Handbook of Anatomy for Art Students (London: Macmillan, 1896).

  Woolner, Amy, Thomas Woolner, R. A., Sculptor and Poet: His Life in Letters (London: Chapman and Hall, 1917).

  Extending the Territory

  de Grey, Aubrey D. N. J., et al., ‘Is Human Aging Still Mysterious Enough to Be Left Only to Scientists?’, BioEssays, vol. 24 (2002), 667–76.

  Deschamps, J.-Y., Françoise A. Roux, Pierre Saï and Edouard Gouin, ‘History of Xenotransplantation’, Xenotransplantation, vol. 12, no. 2 (2005), 91–109.

  Lewis, C. S., The Screwtape Letters (London: Collins, 1979).

  McLuhan, Marshall, Understanding Media (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964).

  Newrick, P. G., E. Affie and R. J. M. Corrall, ‘Relationship Between Longevity and Lifeline: A Manual Study of 100 Patients’, Journa
l of the Royal Society of Medicine, vol. 83 (August 1990), 499–501.

  Nuland, Sherwin B., ‘Do You Want to Live Forever?’, Technology Review, vol. 108 (February 2005), 36–45.

  Voronoff, Serge, Quarante-trois greffes du singe à l’homme (Paris: Doin, 1924).

  Voronoff, Serge, The Study of Old Age and My Method of Rejuvenation (London: Gill Publishing, 1926).

  Warner, Huber, et al., ‘Science Fact and the SENS Agenda’, EMBO Reports, vol. 6 (2005), 1006–8.

  Williams, Bernard, Problems of the Self (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973).

  Wilmoth, J. R., ‘Demography of Longevity: Past, Present, and Future Trends’, Experimental Demography, vol. 35 (2000), 1111–29.

  Zemanová, Mirka, Janáček (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2002).

  Epilogue: Coming Home

  Barringer, David, ‘Self Created’, RSA Journal (Winter 2011), 50.

  Fuller, Steve, Humanity 2.0 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).

  Acknowledgements

  Our attitudes towards the human body are so confused and conflicted that on many occasions during the research for this book I found my access barred to the things that I felt I needed to see and experience – barred ostensibly by regulation, but in fact by timid gatekeepers who did not want the trouble of opening their resources to an outsider’s gaze. I am all the more grateful, then, to those few who were prepared, in the face of these regrettable restrictions, to grant me a privileged view into what is in fact our own corporeal world. I am grateful above all to Sarah Simblet of the Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art, who allowed me to join her classes in drawing from anatomy, and to John Morris, the professor of human anatomy at the University of Oxford, in whose department this uniquely informative activity takes place.

  Ken Arnold provided the introduction to Sarah without which this book would have had nowhere to begin. Once again I am greatly indebted to him and his colleagues at the Wellcome Collection, James Peto, Lisa Jamieson, Rosie Tooby and Elayne Hodgson, for their assistance and expertise. In 2009, they were kind enough to invite me to curate an exhibition called ‘Identity: Eight Rooms, Nine Lives’. I have borrowed greedily from some of the lives that we presented there. I am immensely grateful to April Ashley, who allowed us to tell the remarkable story of her gender reassignment for that exhibition, which I have retold in brief here. I am grateful, also, to Ruth Garde, who delved into the phrenological literature and came up with many riches, a few of which I also draw upon, and to the various neuroscientists whose fMRI images of the brain featured in that exhibition. A small part of my chapter dealing with the brain is adapted from an essay I wrote for the catalogue of that exhibition, Identity and Identification (London: Black Dog Publishing, 2009).

  This is the first book that I have written about the life sciences, and one of the chief pleasures associated with it has been my discovery of the Wellcome Library. Here I was imaginatively guided by William Schupbach, Simon Chaplin, Ross Macfarlane, Christopher Hilton and Lesley Hall. Diana Wood at the library of the Fitzwilliam Museum and the staff of the Cambridge University Library also provided assistance.

  I would also like to thank Fay Bound Alberti, Sam Alberti and his colleagues Carina Phillips, Tony Lander and Martyn Cooke at the Royal College of Surgeons, Santiago Alvarez, Vittorio and Enrica Norzi, Andrea Sella, Erik Spiekermann, Luba Vikhanski, Barbora Koláčková and Jana Vokacova, who responded enthusiastically to my request for body idioms in languages other than English, Derek Batty, Sarah-Jayne Blakemore, Barry Bogin, Serena Box, Vicki Bruce, Edwin Buijsen at the Mauritshuis, Deborah Bull and Molly Rosenberg at the Royal Opera House, Chris Burgoyne, Gemma Calvert, Emily Campbell, Emma Chambers, Alex Clarke, Jody Cundy, Chris Furber and Iga Kowalska-Owen of the British Paralympic cycling team, Andrew Douds, Alan Eaton, William Edwards at the Gordon Museum, Pascal Ennaert at the Groeninge Museum, Mattie Faint, Chris Frith, David Gault, Roderick Gordon, Michael John Gorman and Brigid Lanigan at the Science Gallery, Dublin, Daniel Green, Gary Green and Sam Johnson at the York Neuroimaging Centre, Aubrey de Grey, Annabel Huxley, Karen Ingham, Jim Kennedy, Tobie Kerridge, Vivienne Lo, Natasha McEnroe, James Neuberger, Helen O’Connell, Deborah Padfield, James Partridge, David Perrett, Wolfgang Pirsig, Emma Redding and her colleagues Mary Ann Hushlak, Sarah Chin and Luke Pell at the Laban Centre, Keith Roberts, Laura Bowater, Hope Gangata and David Heylings at the University of East Anglia, Nichola Rumsey, Volker Scheid, Don Shelton, Jim Smith, Charles Spence, Lindsay and Justin Stead, Viren Swami, Julian Vincent, Crawford White, Fiona Wollocombe, Duncan X and Blue at Into You. I confess to stealing the idea for the illustration on the dedication page from Ruth Richardson.

  I happily thank my agent Antony Topping, my editor Will Hammond, copy editor David Watson and my wife Moira and son Sam, who have once again put up with me as I battled to learn something of a topic about which, like most of us, I knew and still know so little.

  Hugh Aldersey-Williams

  Norfolk, July 2012

  Index

  Entries correspond to the print edition of this book. You can use your device’s search function to locate particular terms in the text.

  Page references in italic indicate illustrations.

  Achilles 204

  Achilles heel 60

  Achilles tendon 58

  Adam (biblical) 55, 90, 156, 203, 236

  Adam (Visible Human Project) 36

  adrenaline 152

  Adriaenszoon, Adriaen 4–6, 189–90

  ageing theory 257

  Alberti, Fay Bound 131, 138

  Alberti, Leon Battista 24

  Alcott, Louisa May: Little Women 95

  amino acids 201

  Amis, Martin: London Fields 101

  Amish 133

  Amsterdam 1, 4, 7

  analytical photography 97

  anatomy drawing 1–15

  anatomy theatres 6–7

  Anaxagoras 190

  Andersen, Hans Christian: ‘The Emperor’s New Clothes’ 236

  angels 248–9, 250

  animal ‘donors’ 252–3

  anorexia 185

  anti-Semitism 90

  Anything Left-Handed 199

  Apelles 226

  Aphrodite 206, 210

  appendicitis 234–5

  aqueous humour 169–70

  arabesque 222

  Arconville, Marie-Geneviève-Charlotte Thiroux d’ 81

  Arens, William 182

  Aristophanes: The Clouds 192

  Aristotle xvii, 73, 128, 141, 190, 196

  Armour, Andrew 131

  Armstrong, Neil, footprint on the moon 216

  Artemis 243

  arteries 21, 69, 71, 73, 129, 166

  Arts and Crafts movement 133

  Ashley, April 207–9

  asymmetry 100, 197–8, 199–202, 238

  Atala, Anthony 139–40

  Aubrey, John 73, 129

  Auschwitz experiments 77

  Austen, Jane: Pride and Prejudice 171

  Avicenna 73, 119

  baboon 252, 253

  Bach-y-Rita, Paul 174

  ballet 220–23

  Barberino, Francesco da: I Documenti d’Amore 132

  Barbie (doll) 227

  Barcan, Ruth: Nudity 220, 236

  Bardot, Brigitte 94

  Barnard, Christiaan 137

  Barnes, Julian: Flaubert’s Parrot 171

  Barthes, Roland 207

  Bartlem, Edwina 163

  Batty, Derek 233

  Baudelaire, Charles 176

  Beaurieux, Gabriel 85

  beauty 23–4, 45, 75

  of the face 99–102

  Galton and 96–9, 102–3

  and human judgement 100

  and symmetry 24, 100, 102

  Beauvoir, Simone de 94

  Benson, Philip 102

  Bernier, François 89–90

  Bertillon, Alphonse 31, 32, 170

  Bertoletti, Patrick 186

  Beuys, Joseph 47

 
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