by John N. Hale
66. “About,” Public Funds Public Schools; Associated Press, “Arizona Proposition 305 Fails, Blocking Expansion of School Vouchers for Families,” ABC 15 Arizona, November 6, 2018, https://www.abc15.com/news/state/arizona-proposition-305-fails-reducing-school-vouchers-available-to-families.
67. “About,” Public Funds Public Schools.
68. See Black, Schoolhouse Burning; Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black Americans’ Struggle for Equality (New York: Vintage Books, 2004).
69. Gary R. George and Walter C. Farrell Jr., “School Choice and African American Students: A Legislative View,” Journal of Negro Education 59, no. 4 (Autumn 1990): 521–25.
70. Terrenda White, “From Community Schools to Charter Chains,” in Sanders, Stovall, and White, Twenty-First Century Jim Crow Schools, 104.
71. Rucker C. Johnson and Alexander Nazaryan, Children of the Dream: Why School Integration Works (New York: Basic Books, 2019), 45, 57–66; John Charles Boger and Gary Orfield eds., School Resegregation: Must the South Turn Back? (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 7–9; David Grissmer, Ann Flanagan, and Stephanie Williamson, “Why Did the Black-White Score Gap Narrow in the 1970s and 1980s,” in The Black-White Test Score Gap, ed. Christopher Jencks and Meredith Phillips (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1998), 185–87; David W. Grissmer, Stephanie Williamson, Sheila Nataraj Kirby, and Mark Berends, “Exploring the Rapid Rise in Black Achievement Scores in the United States (1970–1990),” in The Rising Curve: Long-Term Gains in IQ and Related Measures, ed. Ulric Neisser (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1998), 251–85. On the early history of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), see Richard Rothstein, Tamara Wilder, and Rebecca Jacobson, “Early NAEP,” chap. 6 in Grading Education: Getting Accountability Right (New York: Teachers College Press, 2008); Erica Frankenberg, “School Integration—The Time Is Now,” introduction to Lessons in Integration: Realizing the Promise of Racial Diversity in American Schools, ed. Erica Frankenberg and Gary Orfield (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007); Michelle Burris, “The Benefits of Socioeconomically and Racially Integrated Schools and Classrooms,” Century Foundation, April 26, 2019, https://tcf.org/content/facts/the-benefits-of-socioeconomically-and-racially-integrated-schools-and-classrooms.
72. Christopher M. Span and Ishwanzya D. Rivers, “Reassessing the Achievement Gap: An Intergenerational Comparison of African American Student Achievement before and after Compensatory Education and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act,” Teachers College Record 114, no. 6 (June 2012): 1–17; Richard Rothstein, “For Public Schools, Segregation Then, Segregation Since: Education and the Unfinished March,” Economic Policy Institute, August 27, 2013, https://www.epi.org/publication/unfinished-march-public-school-segregation; Johnson and Nazaryan, Children of the Dream; Erica Frankenberg and Gary Orfield, Lessons in Integration: Realizing the Promise of Racial Diversity in American Schools (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007).
73. Rothstein, “For Public Schools, Segregation Then, Segregation Since.”
74. Johnson and Nazaryan, Children of the Dream, 63–65; Valerie Straus and Rucker C. Johnson, “Why School Integration Works,” Washington Post, May 16, 2019; Nikole Hannah-Jones, “It Was Never About Busing,” New York Times, July 14, 2019).
75. Johnson and Nazaryan, Children of the Dream, 65.
76. Troy LaRaviere interview.
77. Nikole Hannah-Jones, “Choosing a School for My Daughter in a Segregated City,” New York Times Magazine, June 9, 2016.
INDEX
Notes are indicated by “n” following the page number.
Academic Magnet High School (Charleston, South Carolina), 121–23
accountability movement, 99, 101–2, 103, 105, 107–8
achievement gap, 144, 169, 211–12
Achievement School District (Memphis), 154, 158, 167
Adams, LaTricea, 156
Agassi, Andre, 131
Alabama: Brown v. Board of Education, response to, 23; Citizens’ Councils in, 24; racism in, 168; White rights, defense of, 28–29
Alexander, Lamar, 101, 102, 104
Alexander v. Holmes County Board of
Education, 26, 34, 35
All Children Matter (PAC), 110–11, 182
Alliance for School Choice, 111, 127, 145
Almond, J. Lindsay, 24, 30
alternative school movement, 118–19
American Alliance for Better Schools, 145
American Dream, 39, 41–42
American Federation for Children, 141
American Housing Act (1949), 53
America 2000 education goals, 102
Anderson, Melinda, 135
Arizona: Cain v. Horne, 209; school performance in, 181; special needs students in, 186; voucher program, defeat of, 209–10
Asleep at the Wheel (NPE), 200
Atkins, Thomas, 75
Baker, Ella, 66, 203
Baltimore, Algebra Project, 203
Banks, Valerie, 144
Barber, William J., II, 201
Barbic, Chris, 154–55, 156, 158
Barclay, Arthur, 194
Barnes, Robin D., 151
Beals, Melba Pattillo, 20
Bell, Derrick, 143, 150–51, 152, 153
Bell, Terrell, 97
Benson, Keith: activism of, 205, 206; on coalition building, 200; on hybrid schools, 191; NAACP and, 195; on profiteering by charter operators, 174; on resistance to school choice, 202; school choice, critiques of, 193–94
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation: on CREDO report, 180, 181; expenditures by, 110, 113, 114, 154, 186; influence of, 171
Birmingham movement, 142
Black, Derek, 132
Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) individuals: in Camden, grassroots organizing of, 195; digital divide and, 137; free school movement and, 118; support for school choice, 12. See also people of color
Black Alliance for Educational Options (BAEO), 141, 142
blackboard jungles, 31, 54, 66
Black Education for New Orleans, 161
Black Lives Matter movement, 14, 146
Black Panther Party, 78
Bloomberg, Michael, 185
Blum, Richard, 125
Board of Education of Oklahoma City
Public Schools v. Dowell, 106, 147
Bob Jones University, 97
Bob Jones University v. United States, 97, 117
Bolick, Clint, 145
Booker, Cory, 159
Boston: busing in, 62–64, 73–75; school privatization in, 75–76; White flight from, 85–86
Broad, Eli, 110, 185
Brown, Doris, 86
Brown, Jitu, 199, 201
Brown, Millicent, 63, 65, 89
Brown v. Board of Education: cases comprising, 64; evidence used in,
67; failures of, 143; Friedman and, 44; Lewis and, 17–18; NAACP and, 7; as precedent, 70; on race and education, 169
Bryan, Hazel, 20, 88
Buchanan, James, 47
Buchanan v. Warley, 50
Budde, Ray, 128, 129, 131, 133
Buist Academy (Charleston, South Carolina), 8, 121–23
Burger, Warren, 94
Burke High School (Charleston, South Carolina), 1–3, 5–6, 122, 197
Bush, George H. W., 102, 103
Bush, George W., 101, 102–3, 107, 127, 140–41, 187
busing: Black attitudes toward, 77; in Boston, 62–64, 73–75; buses, symbolism of, 64; in Chicago, 69–71; controversy over, media portrayals of, 76–8; New York City school desegregation and, 67–68; Nixon’s attitudes toward, 93; North’s response to, 91; perceptions of, as violent, 76–77; political opposition to, 71–72; Reagan on, 96; suburbs and, 86–88. See also racism and foundations of school choice model
Byrd, Harry F., Sr., 19
Byrnes, James “Jimmy,” 22, 25
Cain v. Horne, 209
Californi
a: charter schools in, 129, 184–85; governor’s race (2018), 208; school funding in, 173; special needs students in, 186. See also Los Angeles
Camden, New Jersey: resistance to school choice in, 193–94; state takeover of schools in, 190–92
Canada, Geoffrey, 12–13, 132
Cantor, Phil, 204
Carmichael, Stokely, 79, 140
Carpenter, Sarah, 158–59, 175
Carter, Jimmy, 95
Cash, Kriner, 155
Catholic schools, 125
Center for Public Democracy, 174
Center for Research on Education Outcomes (CREDO, Stanford University), 170, 180–81
Center on Education Policy, 181 Chamber of Commerce, on Tennessee public schools, 154
Chaney, James, 96
Charleston, South Carolina: Buist Academy, 8, 121–23; Burke High School, 1–3, 5–6, 122, 197; magnet schools in, 121–23; pro–school choice lobbying in, 182; racial makeup of, 2; resistance to school choice in, 189, 197
Charlotte and Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, desegregation efforts in, 106–7
Charlottesville Education Summit, 102, 104
Charter School Expansion Act (1998), 105
charter schools: Charter Schools Program, 114; under Clinton, 105, 106; corporatization of, 179; discussion of, 128–33; expenditures on, 219n12; for-profit charter schools, 13, 130–31, 179; growth of, 9, 111; in Memphis, 154–56, 179; under NCLB Act, 109; Obama on, 111; profit motive and, 173–74; under Race to the Top Program, 113; segregation in, 147–49; single-site schools, 156–57; student suspensions, 187; teachers’ strikes, 204
Chicago: Chicago Land Clearance Commission, 53; Chicago Urban League, 49–50, 53, 54; community control movement in, 80; direct action in, 203–4; educational justice movement, 189; Redmond Plan, 69, 120; Renaissance 2010 plan, 112, 113, 196, 202; resistance to busing in, 69–70; resistance to school choice in, 192–93, 194, 198, 200, 202; segregation in, 39, 42–43, 49–54; South East Chicago Commission, 56; as stage for school
choice, 38–39; White flight from, 52, 85, 86
Chicago, Friedman and school choice in, 38–61; Friedman, rise of, 38–49; segregated public schools in Chicago, 57–61; segregation in
Chicago, 39, 42–43, 49–54; University of Chicago and, 54–57
Chico, Gary, 202
Christie, Chris, 190, 193
Cicero, Illinois, racism in, 50
Citizens’ Councils, 24, 26
Citizens for Educational Freedom, 145
Citizens League (Minnesota), 129
civil rights: civil rights activism and freedom of choice, 33–36; civil rights perspective on resistance to school choice, 210–11. See also
civil rights claim to school choice, racism and
Civil Rights Act (1964): Friedman’s opposition to, 47, 61; Johnson and, 90; school desegregation, definition of, 71; Title IV, 71; Title VI, 59
civil rights claim to school choice, racism and, 139–63; charter schools and, 147–49; Fuller and, 139–42, 149–54, 162–63; Memphis, school reform in, 154–57; Milwaukee, school reform in, 150–54; NAACP and, 157–59; New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina, 160–61; resegregation and, 147; school choice, bipartisan support for, 104, 111, 159–60; school choice, Black support for, 145–46, 162–63; Wyatt Tee Walker and, 142–45
Civil Rights Project (UCLA), 147, 166–67, 187
Clark, Harvey, 50
Clark, Kenneth and Mamie, 67
class (social), 8–9, 178
Cleage, Albert, 80
Cleveland, voucher system in, 125–26
Clinton, Bill, 14, 101, 102, 104–6
Clinton, Hillary, 172
Coalition for Kids, 182–83
coalitions, importance of building, 198–203. See also resisting school choice through counternarratives and coalitions
Cobb, Charlie, 78
Cody, Anthony, 200
Cody, John, 70
Coggs, G. Spencer, 153
Coggs, Marcia, 152
Cohen, Muriel, 84
Coit v. Green, 117
College of Charleston (South Carolina), 25
color-blind rhetoric and ideology, 82, 95, 122, 169–70, 175
Committee for Economic Development (public policy organization), 100
community control movement, 78–83, 124
community empowerment, 176, 178–80
Conant, James, 66
Congress, creation of Opportunity Zones, 160. See also federal support of school choice movement
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), 64, 139
Connor, Bull, 144
Constitution, supposed
color-blindness of, 169
controlled choice, 5, 116–17
Coordinating Council of Community Organizations (CCCO), 58–59
corporate interests, 170–71
corruption in school choice networks, 182–83
counternarratives. See resisting school choice through counternarratives and coalitions
Counts, Dorothy, 20
COVID-19 pandemic, 136, 137–38
Cox, John, 185, 208
CREDO (Center for Research on Education Outcomes, Stanford University), 170, 180–81
Crespino, Joseph, 73, 96
cyber schools (virtual schooling, online education), 135–38
Daley, Richard: anti-desegregation efforts, 69; Civil Rights Act and, 59; Duncan and, 112; on Hyde Park–Kenwood renewal, 56; Johnson and, 91; Little Village school and, 202; Renaissance 2010 plan, 112, 113, 196, 202
D.C. Parents for School Choice, 144
Deadrich, Katie, 90
Debs, Mira, 119
Defenders of State Sovereignty and Individual Liberties (Virginia), 28
defensive localism, 55
DeLaine, Joseph, 64
Delmont, Matthew, 55, 70, 76
Democratic Party, 15, 104
Democrats for Education Reform, 141
Dennis, Dave, 165, 210
Department of Education: creation of, 95; Duncan at, 14, 112–13; Reagan and, 97; reduced funding for, 101; school choice, reliance on, 14, 111; on school choice under NCLB Act, 109
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW), 33, 59, 69, 94
Department of Justice, 94, 97, 121–22
desegregation: benefits of, 211–12; under Clinton, 105; desegregation assistance centers, 97; failure of, 146; as goal of magnet schools, 120; impact on Whites, 212–13; Johnson’s support for, 90–91; New York City efforts on, 66–69; northern views of, 64–66, 70–71; under Reagan, 97–102; school choice and, 4–6, 19; Whites’ attitudes toward, 77, 88–89. See also integration; racism and foundations of school choice model
Detroit: community control movement in, 80, 82; inner city violence in, 83; school performance in, 181; suburban busing and, 86–87; White flight from, 85
DeVos, Betsy: All Children Matter and, 182; California gubernatorial race and, 185; Fuller and, 141; as K12 Inc. financial backer, 138; school choice, support for, 14, 110, 127, 159, 171–73; on school choice, 12, 163; school privatization agenda, 162; as secretary of education, appointment of, 114–15
Dickerson, Ronsha, 190–92, 193–94, 195, 199–200, 205
disabled/special needs students, 186–88
District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi, Evers v. Jackson Municipal Separate School District, 34
Dougherty, Jack, 150
Douglass, Frederick, 7
Du Bois, W. E. B., 148–49, 163, 165–66, 168
Duckworth, Angela, 41
Duncan, Arne: Chicago and, 192–93; educational policies of, 14, 112–13, 204; mentioned, 206; Renaissance 2010 plan, 112, 113, 196, 202; Tennessee public schools and, 154
Dure, Leon, 30
Eckford, Elizabeth, 20
economy and economics: economic argument for choice, 166; economic impact of choice, 172; segrenomics, 174–75. See also Friedman, Milton
EdChoice (Milton and Rose D. Friedman Foundation), 9, 114, 123, 164
educatio
n: as civil right, 17–18, 19; educational justice movement, 189; educators as political actors, 205–8; equalization plans, 22–23; Friedman’s views on, 44–45; politicization of, 7; profit motive in, 13; public opinion of, 11. See also freedom of choice in education; public education (public schools)
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 20
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965), 32, 41, 90, 104, 112, 113, 119
Eli and Edythe Broad Foundation, 171
Emanuel, Rahm, 192–93, 196, 205, 206
Emanuel AME Church (Charleston, South Carolina), killings at, 8
Emergency School Aid Act (1972), 94, 97, 119
Equal Education Opportunity Act (1974), 71
equalization plans, 22–23
Erickson, Ansley, 48–49, 57
Evers, Tony, 207–8
Evers v. Jackson Municipal Separate School District, 34
Every Student Succeeds Act (2015), 113–14
Fabricant, Michael, 171
failure of school choice, deterioration of public education and, 164–88; budget shortfalls from school choice, 173–76; choice programs, failures of, 180–82; community empowerment and, 176, 178–80; corporate interests and, 170–71; corruption in school choice networks, 182–83; DeVos and, 171–73; disabled/special needs students and, 186–88; Friedman and, 164–65; in Los Angeles, 184–86; racism’s impact on, 165–70; social and economic capital and, 176–78; teachers’ unions and, 183–84
Farrell, Walter, 152
Faubus, Orval, 20, 23–24
Federal Charter School Program, 105
Federal Housing Administration, 50
federal support of school choice movement, 90–115; accountability movement, 101–2; bipartisan nature of, 104; Bush and, 102–3; Clinton and, 104–6; DeVos and, 114–15; Johnson and, 90–91; magnet schools, 103–4; A Nation at Risk and, 98–101; Nixon and, 90–95; No Child Left Behind Act, 107–10; Obama and, 111–14; Reagan and, 95–99, 101; school vouchers, 110–11; Supreme Court and, 106–7
Ferguson, Herman, 81
Fine, Michelle, 171
Finn, Chester, 129, 143, 160
First to the Top law (Tennessee), 154
Florida: federal education funding for, 33; school performance in, 181
Floyd, George, 159
Ford, Gerald, 95
