35. ‘The Testament of Ivan IV, the Terrible’, in Howes, ed., Testaments of the Grand Princes of Moscow, p. 307-8.
6: THE CRASH
1. See Zimin, V kanun groznykh potriasenii.
2. Chistiakova, Rogozhin et al., ‘Oko vsei velikoi Rossii’, pp. 71ff. Vasilii Shchelkalov took charge of the Foreign Office on his brother’s death.
3. See W. E. D. Allen, ed., Russian Embassies to the Georgian Kings (1589-1605) (2 vols., Cambridge, 1970), vol. 1, p. 60.
4. Zimin, V kanun groznykh potriasenii, p. 237.
5. M. Raeff, Siberia and the Reforms of 1822 (Seattle, 1956), p. xiv.
6. On frontier defences, see Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier, pp. 131ff. passim.
7. Hakluyt, Voyages, vol. 3, p. 384.
8. V. Klein, Uglichskoesledstvennoe delo i smerti Tsarevicha Dmitriia (Moscow, 1913), and Veselovskii, Trudy po istochnikovedenii i istorii Rossii v periode feodalzma, pp. 156-89. See also R. G. Skrynnikov, Boris Godunov (Moscow, 1979), pp. 67-84.
9. For the Romanovs’ role in promoting, and exploiting, the cult, see A. Kleimola, ‘The Romanovs and the cult of the Tsarevich Dmitrii’, in Religiia i tserkov’ v kul’turno-istoricheskom razvitiei russkogo severa (Kirov, 1996), pp. 230-3.
10. On Boris himself, apart from Skrynnikov, Boris Godunov, see Chester Dunning’s compendious history of the Time of Troubles, Russia’s First Civil War: The Time of Troubles and the Founding of the Romanov Dynasty (University Park, Penn., 2001), pp. 9iff. and passim.
11. Nolde, La Formation de l’Empire Russe, vol. 2, p. 317.
12. Allen, ed., Russian Embassies to the Georgian Kings, vol. 1, pp. 87ff. for translations of the diplomatic record; the preceding introduction for the background, and the apparatus in vol. 2 for explanations of people, places etc. The list quoted appears in the embassy’s instructions: vol. 1, p. 98.
13. B. Gudziak, Crisis and Reform: The Kievan Metropolitanate, the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Genesis of the Union of Brest (Cambridge, Mass., 1998), is scholarly and helpful and, though by a Uniate, is not unsympathetic to Orthodox sentiments. See also M. Dmitriev, B. Floria and S. Iakovenko, Brestskaia uniia 1596g i obshchestvenno-politicheskaia bor’ba na Ukraine i v Belorussii v xvi-nachale xvii v, Pt 1 (Moscow, 1996), on the causes. However, an adequate account of how the religious divide between Orthodox, Uniate and Catholic came to be drawn has yet to be written.
14. Mouravieff, A History of the Church of Russia, p. 145.
15. Zimin, Vkanun groznykh potriasenii, p. 238.
16. Iu. Got’e, ed., Akty otnosiashchiesia k istorii zemskikh soborov, vyp. 1 (Moscow, 1909), pp. 12ff.
17. C. Bussow, The Disturbed State of the Russian Realm, trans. and ed. G. Orchard (Montreal, 1994), pp. 13-14. The account is confirmed by other sources.
18. Ye. Borisenkov and V. Piasetskii, Tysiachiletnaia letopis’ neobychnykh iavlenii prirody (Moscow, 1988), pp. 323-4.
19. Bussow, The Disturbed State of the Russian Realm, pp. 32—3.
20. Smith to Cecil, 25 February 1606, Cecil Papers 104/47, Hatfield House Library.
21. P. Longworth, ‘Political rumour in early modern Russia’, in Szvak, ed., Muscovy: Peculiarities of its Development, pp. 27-33.
22. The standard source for these events is Dunning, Russia’s First Civil War, pp. 131ff.
23. The New Chronicle quoted in Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, p. 183.
24. References to most of these can be found in Dunning, Russia’s First Civil War; on Dmitry’s ‘magic with devils’, Ryan, The Bathhouse at Midnight, p. 39.
25. Dunning, Russia’s First Civil War, ch. 14.
26. The New Chronicle quoted in Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, p. 183.
27. Dunning, Russia’s First Civil War, pp. 412—13.
28. Instructions for King Sigismund’s envoy to the Pope, 22 September 1611, Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, pp. 201-2.
29. Iaroslavl to Vologda letter, February 1611, Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, p. 197.
30. Dunning, Russia’s First Civil War, p. 421.
31. Archimandrite Dionysius’s appeal of 6 October 1611, Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, p. 204; Letters from Kazan to Perm and from Tobolsk to Narym, September and October 1611, Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, pp. 201-4.
32. Pozharskii to Solvychegodsk, 7 April 1612, Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, pp. 205-7.
33. Ibid., pp. 199-200.
34. See R. Hellie, The Economy and Material Culture of Russia 1600-1723 (Chicago, 1999), p. 498.
35. Dunning, Russia’s First Civil War, pp. 438—9.
36. See the now rich literature on pretenders in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries — Perrie, Skrynnikov, Longworth et al.
37. G. Hosking has argued that Russia’s development was impeded by a lack of national self-consciousness. Yet the mobilization letters quoted above suggest otherwise. The Russians had a clear sense of who they were at the beginning of the 1600s, and other ethnic groups in Russia seem to have shared that sense to some extent.
7: RECOVERY
1. N. Rogozhin, ‘Mesto Rossii xvi—xvii vekov v Evrope po materialam posolskikh knig’, in Szvak, ed., The Place of Russia in Europe, pp. 88—96.
2. There was a rebellion in Moscow in 1648, serious riots in other major cities in 1650—51; the ‘Copper Riots’ of 1660—61, the huge uprising led by the Cossack Stepan Razin in southern Russia in 1670—71; the musketeer riot of 1682, etc.
3. The estimate is based on figures in D. Moon, The Russian Peasantry 1600—1930 (London, 1999), table 1.3 and p. 21, n. 17. Moon draws his data from Ye. Vodarskii, Naselenie Rossii za 400 let (Moscow, 1973), p. 27, and his Naselenie Rossii v kontse xvii—nachale xviii veka (Moscow, 1977), pp. 134, 192. I have adjusted Moon’s figures to take account of seventeenth-century frontier changes. The estimate in C. McEvedy and R. Jones, Atlas of World Population History (London, 1980), p. 79, seems somewhat inflated.
4. Hellie, The Economy and Material Culture of Russia, pp. 635—9.
5. Ibid., pp. 643, 637.
6. I have argued the point in Alexis, Tsar of All the Russias (London, 1984), p. 160.
7. Even the English-language literature on the conquest of Siberia is too considerable to list here, but I refer to the works I found useful in the references which follow.
8. See the instructions to the governor of Tsivylsk in Cheremis country near Kazan in Nolde, La Formation de l’Empire Russe, vol. 1, p. 75, quoting Dopolneniia k aktam istoricheskim (4 vols., 1846-72), vol. 2, doc. 79.
9. Tsar Vasilii Shuiskii to the governor of Pelym, 6 August 1609, in Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, p. 263.
10. R. Fisher, ed., The Voyage of Semen Dezhnev in 1648 (London, 1981), pp. 107—8. For graphic evidence of the dangers and privations Stadukhin and other explorers confronted, see also pp. 74-84.
11. A well-informed defector to Sweden in the 1660s, G. Kotoshikhin (O Rossii v tsarstvovanii Alekseia Mikhailovicha, ed. A. Pennington (Oxford, 1980), p. 106, estimated the treasury’s annual income from Siberian tribute at over 600,000 rubles.
12. K. Serbina, ed., Kniga bol’shemu chertezha (Moscow and Leningrad, 1950).
13. Petition from servicemen at Fort Verkholensk to Tsar Michael, in J. Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia’s North Asian Colony 1581-1990 (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 87-8.
14. Forsyth in A. Wood, ed., The History of Siberia: From Russian Conquest to Revolution (London, 1991), Table 5-1, p. 71. For more on the native peoples of Siberia see Christian, Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, vol. 1, pp. 54-7, Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, and T Armstrong, Russian Settlement in the North 1581-1990 (Cambridge, 1992).
15. Instruction to the governor of Iakutsk, 10 February 1644, Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, pp. 266-7. The same principle informs similar orders dating back at least twenty years.
16. [Olearius], The Voiages and Travels of the Ambassadors sent by Frederick, Duke of Holstein, to the Great Duk
e of Muscovy and the King of Persia (2nd edn, London, 1669), pp. 117, 136.
17. On units of ‘new formation’, see J. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia 1462-1874 (Oxford, 1985), pp. 80-1.
18. Uchenie i khitrost’ ratnago stroieniia pekhotnykh liudei [Kriegskunst der Fuss] (Moscow [State Printing Court], 1647). Over 1,000 copies of the book were printed; fewer than 200 were sold. However, its influence would have been greater than the number suggests in an age when copyists’ services were cheap.
19. P. Gordon, Dnevnik 1659-1667, ed. D. Fedosov (Moscow, 2002), p. 100.
20. Longworth, Alexis, pp. 144, 266 (n. 26), 267 (n. 61).
21. Tula: materialy dlia istorii goroda xvi—xviii stoletii (Moscow 1884), pp. 2—29.
22. Longworth, Alexis, pp. 260-61, n. 42.
23. For the Ukrainian background, see S. Lep’iavko, Kozats’ki viini kintsya xvi st. v Ukraini (Chernihiv, 1996).
24. P. Longworth, The Cossacks (London, 1969), ch. 4.
25. Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, p. 296.
26. Ibid., pp. 300-301. Recent publications by some Ukrainian historians repeat the claim that Pereiaslav was a treaty rather than a submission.
27. Longworth, Alexis, p. 96.
28. On Cossack democracy etc. see Longworth, The Cossacks, ch. 1. On Khmelnytsky and his successors, ibid., ch. 4.
29. Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 1, pp. 202-4.
30. W. E. D. Allen, The Ukraine: A History (Cambridge, 1940), pp. 152-58; also Frost, The Northern Wars, pp. 186—8.
31. See Longworth, Alexis, ch. 7, especially the Tsar’s letter to his chief negotiator at Andrusovo, p. 176.
32. Nolde, La Formation de l’Empire Russe, vol. 1, pp. 194—5.
33. On the advent of the Kalmyks, see Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier, pp. 133-5-
34. On Poland’s foreign service in the critical period of the late seventeenth century, see A. Kaminsky, Republic vs. Autocracy: Poland-Lithuania and Russia 1686—1697 (Cambridge, Mass., 1994), which demonstrates the amateurishness of Polish diplomacy by contrast to Russia’s. See also my review in American Historical Review, December 1995, pp. 1622—3.
35. I. Kozlovskii, Pervye pochty i pervye pochtmeistery v Moskovskom gosudarstve, vol. 1 (Warsaw, 1913), pp. 86-7.
36. See L. Hughes, Sophia, Regent of Russia 1657-1704 (New Haven, 1990), pp. 43-5 and generally on the period 1676-89.
37. Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier, p. 71.
38. Veselovskii, D’iaki i pod’iachie xv—xvii vv, pp. 203, 45—6, 531—2. See also Chistiakova, Rogozhin et al., (Oko vsei velikoi Rossii’ on Ivanov (pp. 92-108) and pp. 108ff. on Matveyev and Golitsyn.
8: PETER THE GREAT AND THE BREAKTHROUGH
TO THE WEST
1. Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 2, p. 343 (with adaptation).
2. On the first campaign of the Swedish war, see Frost, The Northern Wars, pp. 229ff.; D. Kirby, Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period: The Baltic World, 1492-1772 (London, 1990), pp. 299ff.
3. For the early, as well as the later, history of St Petersburg, see J. Bater, St Petersburg: Industrialization and Change (London, 1976).
4. G. Adlerfelt, The Military History of Charles XII (3 vols., London, 1740), vol. 3, pp. 197, 235.
5. Kirby, Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period, p. 325. The terms were interesting in that, in trying to prevent Russia interfering in Swedish affairs, the treaty also insisted that Russia prevent any change to Sweden’s 1720 constitution or the succession to the throne, which gave Russia a legal reason to interfere.
6. N. N. Molchaninov, Diplomatiia Petra Velikogo (Moscow, 1986).
7. E. Schuyler, Peter the Great (2 vols., London, 1884), vol. 2, p. 478.
8. Ibid., pp. 238-39 (revised).
9. On the Khiva expedition, see T. Barrett, At the Edge of Empire: The Terek Cossacks and the North Caucasus Frontier 1700-1860 (Boulder, 1999), p. 31; on Peter’s strategy in Central Asia, A. Donnelly, The Russian Conquest of Bashkiriya 1552—1840 (New Haven, 1968), ch. 4 and its references.
10. Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier, p. 7.
11. M. Olcott, The Kazakhs (Stanford, 1995), p. 30.
12. J. Bell (of Antermony), Travels from St Petersburgh in Russia to Diverse Parts of Asia (2nd edn, London, 1764), vol. 1, pp. 132—316, and vol. 2, pp. 1—155.
13. Coxe, Russian Discoveries, pp. 442-45; for an account of the China negotiations see the account by de Lange, the embassy’s secretary, in Bell, Travels from St Petersburgh, vol. 2, pp. 166ff.
14. Schuyler, Peter the Great, vol. 2, p. 593.
15. Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier, pp. 159, 161-2.
16. Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 2, p. 345.
17. S. Krashennikov, The History of Kamschatka and the Kurilski Islands (Glocester [sic], 1764), pp. 224, 172, 176, 202, 224; Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, p. 101.
18. Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, pp. 137, 139.
19. Coxe, Russian Discoveries, p. 22.
20. R. Fisher, ed., The Voyage of Semen Dezhnev, pp. 257-72 for maps illustrating how understanding of the geography of north-eastern Siberia developed. Also Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, p. 101.
21. See P. Longworth ‘Ukraine: history and nationality’, Slavonic and East European Review, 78, 1 (January 2000), pp. 115-24.
22. Kappeler, Russland als Vielvolkerreich, esp. p. 69.
23. See E. Thaden, Russia’s Western Borderlands 1710-1870 (Princeton, 1984), pp. 7-14.
24. Rywkin, ed., Russian Colonial Expansion, p. xv.
25. Schuyler, Peter the Great, vol. 2, p. 464.
26. A. Kahan, The Plow, The Hammer and the Knout: An Economic History of Eighteenth Century Russia (Chicago, 1985), table 1.1, p. 8, and pp. 9-10.
27. Schuyler, Peter the Great, vol. 2, p. 464.
28. Hellie, The Economy and Material Culture of Russia, pp. 9—11; Kahan, The Plow, The Hammer and the Knout, pp. 7-16.
29. H. Ragsdale, ‘Russian projects of conquest in the eighteenth century’, in H. Ragsdale, ed., Imperial Russian Foreign Policy (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 75ff.
9: GLORIOUS EXPANSION
1. Milev, Velikorusskii pakhar’ i osobennosti rossiiskogo istoricheskogo protsessa (Moscow, 1998), p. 565.
2. Rondeau to Harrington, 4 January 1731 in Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 2, p. 379, col. 2.
3. E. Finch to Harrington, 2 June 1741 in Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 2, pp. 381-2.
4. Nolde, La Formation de l’Empire Russe, vol. 2, pp. 20-23.
5. Ye. Anisimov, ‘The imperial heritage of Peter the Great in the foreign policy of his early successors’, in Ragsdale, Imperial Russian Foreign Policy, p. 21.
6. C. von Manstein [chief ADC to Marshal Münnich], supplement to his Memoirs of Russia (London, 1770), pp. 404-8, 391 (quotation), 295ff., 304, 109ff.
7. Ibid., p. 131.
8. Kahan, The Plow, The Hammer and the Knout, p. 15, table 1.11.
9. Manstein, Memoirs of Russia, p. 417.
10. An Authoritative Narrative of the Russian Expedition against the Turks by an Officer in the Russian Fleet [possibly Admiral Greig himself] (London, 1772), pp. 9-16; N. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean 1797-1807 (Chicago, 1970), pp. 5-7.
11. Kahan, The Plow, The Hammer and the Knout, tables 3.17 and 3.18, pp. 92-3.
12. J. Hanway, An Historical Account of the British Trade over the Caspian Sea (2nd edn, 2 vols., London, 1754), vol. 1, pp. 9ff; for Elton’s journal, see pp. 11-27. Also Olcott, The Kazakhs, pp. 31—33; Donnelly, The Russian Conquest of Bashkiriya, pp. 105-6, 116, 158.
13. Hanway, British Trade over the Caspian Sea, vol. 1, pp. 281, 301, 308, 310-11, 349, 364-5; P. Longworth, ‘The role of Westerners in Russia’s penetration of Asia, I7th-18th century’, in Gy. Szvak, ed., The Place of Russia in Eurasia (Budapest, 2001).
14. Olcott, The Kazakhs, p. 33; Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier, pp. 159, 165, 204.
1
5. Donnelly, The Russian Conquest of Bashkiriya, pp. 57ff. (the quoted passage is on p. 76; the casualty figures are on p. 138).
16. Ibid., p. 156.
17. P. Longworth, The Three Empresses (London, 1972), pp. 144-5.
18. J. Forsyth, ‘The Siberian native peoples before and after the Russian conquest’, in Wood, ed., The History of Siberia, pp. 69—89.
19. Coxe, Russian Discoveries, p. 330.
20. For the impact of smallpox on the population, Kahan, The Plow, The Hammer and the Knout, p. 14; Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, pp. 189, 128, 95, 162 (the quotation is from Shelekhov); Coxe, Russian Discoveries, pp. 280-81.
21. Chappe d’ Auteroche, A Journey into Siberia (2nd edn, London, 1774), pp. 392-4.
22. A. Fisher, The Russian Annexation of the Crimea 1772—1783 (Cambridge, 1970), pp. 52ff.
23. P. Pallas, Travels through the Southern Provinces of the Russian Empire in I793 and 1792 (2 vols., London, 1802-3), vol. 2, p. 361.
24. P. Longworth, The Art of Victory (London, 1966), pp. 127-131; Nolde, La Formation de I’ Empire Russe, vol. 1. ch. 10, and A. Fisher, The Russian Annexation of the Crimea, pp. 137, 156.
25. Broxup, ed., The North Caucasus Barrier, p. 3.
26. Pallas, Travels, vol. 2, p. 343. Pallas carried out a thoroughgoing survey at the behest of P. A. Zubov, then chief administrator of the Crimea; E. Lazzerini, ‘The Crimea under Russian rule’, in Rywkin, ed., Russian Colonial Expansion, pp. 13-38; and J. Reuilly, Travels in the Crimea (London, 1807), pp. 63—84.
27. I. de Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (London, 1982), pp. 361-4. On the establishment of Greek and Armenian colonies around the Sea of Azov, see Nolde, La Formation de l’Empire Russe, vol. 2, pp. 140-52; also M. Raeff, ‘Patterns of Russian imperial policy towards the nationalities’, in M. Raeff, ed., Political Ideas and Institutions in Imperial Russia (Boulder, 1994), p. 163.
28. For the whereabouts of German, Swiss, Greek, Bulgarian, Jewish and other settlers in southern Russia in the late eighteenth and particularly the early nineteenth century, see J. Pallot and D. Shaw, Landscape and Settlement in Romanov Russia (Oxford, 1990), p. 83, fig. 4 (map of settlement). On the development of the ports, Reuilly, Travels in the Crimea, pp. 82—4.
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