by Various
(a) when it ends the line.
(b) when followed by a vowel (or silent h) which starts the next word, if there is no intervening ‘-s’ or ‘-nt’ ending. If we consider again the two Baudelaire lines already quoted:
Pour n’être pas changés en bêtes, ils s’enivrent
D’espace et de lumière et de cieux embrasés,
we can see that the second syllable of être and of bêtes is counted, and the ‘e’ at the end of espace and lumière is not. The -ent of enivrent is a mute ‘e’, and is not counted.
There are elaborately detailed classical rules governing the use of the mute ‘e’ with other vowels and in elisions, as there are on hiatus (the juxtaposition of sounded vowels belonging to different syllables). They need not detain us in an anthology beginning at 1820, though they were applied rigorously during the two previous centuries.
Gautier, the Parnassians, Mallarmé and, later, Valéry were attracted by difficulty as an essential part of the creative process, and resisted the liberation offered by the Verlainian Impair line and of modernist vers libres. They enjoyed the challenge of turning shackles into virtues and singing in their chains.
But the trustful and very French assumption that ordered, declamatory language could satisfactorily express ordered perceptions, feelings and concepts broke down around 1870. Through Verlaine and Corbière to an extent, Rimbaud and Laforgue much more powerfully, the Alexandrine began to receive body-blows. The surges and rests of rhythm became progressively more important than metre, as new free verse forms emerged. These are discussed in the chapters on Laforgue, Claudel, Apollinaire, Cendrars, Perse and others. As we have seen, however, the Alexandrine has certainly remained alive in spite of a great relaxation in the old rules of rhyme and scansion, and no more so than in the fascinating interplay between nostalgia for literary ‘Ordre’ and the new spirit of ‘Aventure’ in Apollinaire’s La jolie rousse. Let us consider these five lines:
Vous dont la bouche est faite à l’image de celle de Dieu
Bouche qui est l’ordre même
Soyez indulgents quand vous nous comparez
A ceux qui furent la perfection de l’ordre
Nous qui quêtons partout l’aventure
The first line, technically 15 syllables, is virtually an Alexandrine if spoken with the antipedantic colloquial rhythm favoured by Apollinaire. Line two has 7 syllables, but 6 if it is spoken colloquially. Line three, referring to the modernists, clearly has 11 syllables. The scansion of line four is debatable, but it should I think be read as an Alexandrine, if not a classical one. The 9-syllable fifth line is emphatically, provocatively modern, even though its first 6 syllables form a classical hemistich. Lines one, two and four thus pay homage to Apollinaire’s literary ancestors with their metre as much as with the ideas they contain, once we penetrate the surface appearance of metrical anarchy. Lines three and five are already grasping the expressive freedom Apollinaire is demanding to deal with the more unformed flux of modern sensory and intellectual experience.
Finally, some notes on rhyme. Though in recent times almost anything has become possible, the essential, traditional definitions of types and patterns of rhyme need to be presented here:
Masculine rhyme: a line not ending in a mute syllable. Redefined by Apollinaire as an oral or nasal vowel,’ followed by an unpronounced consonant.
Feminine rhyme: a line ending in a mute syllable. Redefined by Apollinaire as a pronounced consonant, with or without a following mute ‘e’.
Traditional principles dictate that two different masculine or two different feminine rhymes cannot succeed one another, and also that masculine and feminine endings cannot rhyme together. Apollinaire’s modification, however, allows words traditionally incompatible to rhyme together, e.g. ciel - querelles, sommeil - vermeille.
Rime faible: vowel alone, not much more than assonance:
e.g. parlé - écouté, choisi - noirci.
Rime suffisante: vowel plus consonant or vice versa:
e.g. attrapé - trompé, sure - aventure.
Rime riche: three elements, comprising the rhyming syllable plus a supporting extra consonant (the consonne d’appui):
e.g. nombre - pénombre, verte - ouverte, rêne - arêne, hautaines - capitaines.
This form of rhyming has been little used since the Symbolists rejected it as cloying and ostentatious.
Rimes croisées: ababcdcd.
Rimes plates: aabbccdd.
Rimes embrassées: abbacddc.
Rimes mêlées: no regular scheme.
Rimes redoublées: recurrence of the same rhyme in more than two lines.
For a valuable extended insight into the form of French verse, and an analysis of its organic relationship with emotion, image and idea, see The Appreciation of Modern French Poetry by P. Broome and G. Chesters (published by Cambridge University Press), a companion volume to their Anthology of Modern French Poetry 1850–1950. See also two highly illuminating books by Clive Scott: French Verse Art: a study and A Question of Syllables (both published by Cambridge University Press).
SOURCES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The publishers would like to thank copyright holders for permission to reprint the following:
LOUIS ARAGON: to Editions Gallimard for ‘Les lilas et les roses’ from Le Crève-Coeur, copyright 1941 by Editions Gallimard and Louis Aragon; to Editions Robert Laffont for ‘Elsa au miroir’ and ‘Ballade de celui qui chanta dans les supplices’.
ANDRE BRETON: to Editions Gallimard for ‘L’Union libre’, ‘Tournesol’, ‘Vigilance’ and ‘Sur la route de San Romano’ from Clair de terre, copyright © Editions Gallimard, 1966.
BLAISE CENDRARS: to Editions Denoël for ‘Prose du Transsibérien et de la petite Jeanne de France’, ‘Contrastes’, ‘Construction’, ‘Orion’, ‘Mississippi’ and ‘Aube’ from Du monde entier, copyright 1947 by Editions Denoël.
AIME CESAIRE: to Editions Gallimard for ‘N’ayez point pitié’, ‘Soleil serpent’, ‘Perdition’, ‘Prophétie’ and ‘Tam-tam I’ from Les Armes miraculeuses, copyright 1946 by Editions Gallimard.
RENE CHAR: to Editions Gallimard for ‘Chant du refus’ and ‘Les premiers instants’ from Fureur et mystère (1948), new edition 1967, copyright © Editions Gallimard, 1967; ‘A∗∗∗’ from Recherche de la base et du sommet (1955), new and revised edition 1965, copyright © Editions Gallimard, 1965; ‘L’inoffensif’ and ‘Front de la rose’ from La Parole en archipel (1962), new edition 1986, copyright © Editions Gallimard, 1986; to Librairie José Corti for ‘Artine’, ‘Migration’ and ‘Commune Présence’ from Le Marteau sans maître, copyright 1934 by Librairie José Corti.
PAUL CLAUDEL: to Editions Gallimard for ‘Ballade’ from Corona Benignitatis Anni Dei copyright 1915 by Editions Gallimard; ‘La Muse qui est la Grâce’ and ‘L’Esprit et l’Eau’ from Cinq grandes Odes, copyright 1913 by Editions Gallimard.
ROBERT DESNOS: to Librairie Grund for ‘Le Zèbre’ from Chantefables et chantefleurs, Librairie Grund, Paris; to Editions Gallimard for ‘J’ai tant rêvé de toi’ (from ‘A la Mystérieuse’), ‘La Voix de Robert Desnos’ and ‘Desespoir du soleil’ from Corps et biens, copyright 1930 by Editions Gallimard; ‘Destinée arbitraire’ from Destinée arbitraire, copyright © Editions Gallimard, 1975; ‘Mi-Route’ from Fortunes, copyright 1942 by Editions Gallimard; and ‘Le Paysage’ from Calixto, copyright © Editions Gallimard, 1962.
PAUL ELUARD: to Editions de Minuit for ‘Faire vivre’ from Au rendez-vous allemand; to Editions Robert Laffont for ‘La Mort l’Amour la Vie’ from Le Phénix; to Editions Gallimard for ‘L’Amoureuse’ (from Mourir de ne pas mourir), ‘La courbe de tes yeux’ (from Capitale de la douleur), ‘Le front aux vitres’ (from l’Amour la poésie), ‘A perte de vue dans le sens de mon corps’ (from La Vie immédiate), ‘Tu te lèves’ (from Facile), ‘La victoire de Guernica’ (from Cours naturel), and ‘La terre est bleue comme une orange…’ from Oeuvres complètes, vol. I, copyright © Editions Gallimard, 1968.
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p; LEON-PAUL FARGUE: to Editions Gallimard for ‘Sur le trottoir tout gras’ and ‘La rampe s’allume’ from Poésies, copyright © Editions Gallimard, 1963; ‘Postface’ and ‘La Gare’ from Sous la Lampe, copyright 1929 by Editions Gallimard.
PAUL FORT: to Editions Flammarion for ‘Complainte du Roi et de la Reine’, ‘La grande Ivresse’, ‘La Grenouille bleue’ and ‘L’Ecureuil’.
ANDRE FRENAUD: to Editions Gallimard for ‘Naissance’, ‘Maison à vendre’ and ‘Les Rois Mages’ from Les Rois Mages (1938–1943), copyright © Editions Gallimard, 1977; ‘Présence réelle’ from Il n’y a pas de paradis: Poèmes 1943–1960, copyright © Editions Gallimard, 1962; ‘Assèchement de la plaie’ from La Sainte Face, copyright © Editions Gallimard, 1968.
MAX JACOB: to Editions Gallimard for ‘La Guerre’, ‘Dans la forêt silencieuse’, ‘Ruses du Démon pour ravoir sa proie’ and ‘AoÛt 39’ from Le cornet à dés, vols. I (1945) and II (1955), copyright © Editions Gallimard, 1955; ‘Etabussement d’une communauté au Brésil’ from Le Laboratoire central, copyright © Editions Gallimard, 1960; ‘Présence de Dieu’ from Derniers poèmes en vers et en prose, copyright 1945 by Editions Gallimard.
FRANCIS JAMMES: to Mercure de France for ‘J’aime dans les temps…’, ‘Prière pour aller au Paradis avec les ânes’, ‘Les cinq Mystères douloureux’ and ‘Il va neiger’.
PIERRE-JEAN JOUVE: to Editions Mercure de France for ‘Vallée de larmes’, ‘Vrai Corps’, ‘L’Oeil et la chevelure’, ‘Lamentations au cerf’, ‘La Femme et la terre’, ‘Je suis succession furieuse’, ‘Angles’ and ‘A soi-même’.
HENRI MICHAUX: (in French) to Editions Gallimard for ‘Mes Occupations’ (from Mes Propriétés), ‘Crier’ (from Mes Propriétis), ‘Emportez-moi’ (from Mes Propriétes), ‘Le grand Violon’ (from Lointain intérieur), ‘Clown’ (from Peintures) and ‘Dragon’ (from Peintures) from L’Espace du dedans (1927–1959), revised edition, copyright © Editions Gallimard, 1966; ‘Portrait des Meidosems’ from La Vie dans les plis, copyright 1949 by Editions Gallimard; and ‘Après ma Mort’ from Epreuves, exorcismes, copyright 1945 by Editions Gallimard; (in English) to New Directions Publishing Corporation for ‘Mes Occupations’, ‘Le grand Violon’, ‘Clown’ and ‘Dragon’ from Selected Writings, copyright © New Directions Publishing Corporation, 1968.
OSCAR VLADISLAS DE LUBICZ MILOSZ: to Editions André Silvaire for ‘Quand elle viendra…’ and ‘Aux sons d’une musique…’ from Les Sept Solitudes (Poésies I and Oeuvres complètes); and ‘Cantique de la connaissance’ from La Confession de Lemuel (Poèsies II and Oeuvres complètes).
SAINT-JOHN PERSE: to the Fondation Saint-John Perse and Editions Gallimard for ‘Eloges II and XIV’ from Eloges, copyright 1911 by Editions Gallimard; ‘Anabase VII’ from Anabase, copyright 1924 by Editions Gallimard; ‘Exil II’ from Exil, copyright 1945 by Editions Gallimard; ‘Neiges IV’ from Neiges, copyright 1945 by Editions Gallimard; and ‘Vents: Chant II, i’ from Vents, copyright 1946 by Editions Gallimard.
FRANCIS PONGE: to Editions Gallimard for ‘Les MÛres’, ‘L’Orange’ and ‘Végétation’ from Le Parti pris des choses, copyright 1942 by Editions Gallimard.
JACQUES PREVERT: to Editions Gallimard for ‘Le Cancre’, ‘Familiale’, ‘Déjeuner du matin’, ‘L’Ordre nouveau’ and ‘Barbara’ from Paroles, copyright 1949 by Editions Gallimard; ‘Sanguine’ from Spectacle, copyright 1951 by Editions Gallimard.
PIERRE REVERDY: to Editions Mercure de France for ‘Couloir’, ‘Chauffage central’, ‘Drame’, ‘Les Mots qu’on échange’, ‘X’ and ‘Chair vive’; to Editions Flammarion for ‘Après le Bal’, ‘Toujours là’, ‘Auberge’ and ‘Nomade’ from Plupart du temps.
SAINT-POL ROUX: to Rougerie Editeur for ‘Golgotha’ from Tablettes, copyright © Rougerie, 1986; ‘Alouettes’ from Les Reposoirs de la procession, vol. I, copyright © Rougerie, 1980; ‘La Carafe d’eau pure’ from Les Reposoirs de la procession, vol. III, copyright © Rougerie, 1981.
LEOPOLD SEDAR SENGHOR: to Editions du Seuil for ‘Femme noire’ and ‘Camp 1940’ from Poèmes, copyright © Editions du Seuil, 1984.
PHILIPPE SOUPAULT: to the author for ‘Dimanche’, ‘La grande Mélancolie d’une avenue’, ‘Say it with music’ and ‘Stumbling’ from Poèmes et poésies.
JULES SUPERVIELLE: (in French) to Editions Gallimard for ‘Montévidéo’ and ‘Haute mer’ from Gravitations, copyright 1925 by Editions Gallimard; ‘Tristesse de Dieu’ and ‘Nuit en moi, nuit au dehors’ from La Fable du monde, copyright 1938 by Editions Gallimard; ‘Plein Ciel’ and ‘1940’ from Choix de poèmes, copyright 1947 by Editions Gallimard; ‘Les Poissons’ from Les Amis inconnus, copyright 1934 by Editions Gallimard; ‘Dans la forêt sans heures’ from Le Forcat innocent, copyright 1930 by Editions Gallimard; (in English) to New Directions Publishing Corporation for ‘Montévidéo’, ‘Tristesse de Dieu’, ‘Nuit en moi, nuit au dehors’, ‘Plein Ciel’ and ‘Dans la forêt sans heures’ from Selected Writings, copyright © New Directions Publishing Corporation, 1967.
TRISTAN TZARA: to Editions Flammarion for ‘La grande complainte de mon obscurité trois’, ‘La Mort de Guillaume Apollinaire’, ‘Sur une ride du soleil’ and ‘Volt’.
PAUL VALERY: (in French) to Editions Gallimard for ‘La Fileuse’ and ‘Le Bois amical’ from Album de vers anciens, copyright 1929 by Editions Gallimard; ‘Au platane’, ‘L’Abeille’, ‘Les Pas’, ‘L’Insinuant’, ‘Les Grenades’ and ‘Le Cimetière marin’ from Charmes, copyright 1922 by Editions Gallimard; (in English) to Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd and Princeton University Press for ‘Au platane’, ‘L’Abeille’, ‘Les pas’, ‘L’Insinuant’, ‘Les Grenades’ and ‘Le Cimetière marin’ from The Collected Works in English, Bollingen Series 45, Vol. 1: Poems, translated by David Paul, copyright © Princeton University Press, 1971.
The publishers regret that their attempts to contact the copyright holders of poems by Louis Aragon (‘Poème à crier dans les ruines’), Aimé Césaire (‘Ode à la Guinée’) and Maurice Maeterlinck have been unsuccessful. Due acknowledgement will gladly be made in later editions if the relevant information is forthcoming.
Romanticism in France
The Romantic movement brought a liberation of artistic creativity from universal standards and prescriptive constraints, so that artistic form became a more organic product of the intuitive and imaginative life of the artist. The new spirit encouraged a preoccupation with the self, its sensibilities, its sufferings and its dreams; with love, its ecstasies, its uncertainties and its torments; with time, death and eternity. It conceived the natural world as a double mirror reflecting both the will of God and the temperament of man, and thus the medium through which the two commune. It brought into the light again those cultural links with the medieval past that had remained buried through the neo-classical era. Its wilder exponents began to probe the irrational, the demonic, revealing an unhealthy morbidity in addition to a certain emotional masochism in the interests of an (an alternative tyranny for the liberated), and an increasingly unbridgeable gap developed between the artist and the ‘philistine’ middle classes. The paralysis that is the product of unrealizable dreams engendered nervous tension and mental disorder in some cases, and even a deliberate embracing of evil as the outcast’s road to the infinite.
All of this, because of Revolution, Terror and war, came later to France than to England and Germany, and the first French Romantics were able to draw from those other literary springs. They read Heine and Hoffmann with enthusiasm, they imitated the renewal of contact in those other cultures with a native lyrical and epic tradition, they followed the Lake Poets in discovering a new pantheistic mysticism in solitary contemplation of Nature, and they identified Werther, Faust and Lord Byron as archetypal heroes.
The Romantics cracked the mould that had previously constricted and refined the subject-matter of poetry. They learned how to reach a wide new audience through an enfranchised press and publishing industry, and poetry became a popular art form after perh
aps two centuries as a plaything of the socio-intellectual élite. Individual spirituality, the natural world in its elemental being, the exotic, the occult, adolescent passions and frustrations, dreams and nightmares, the sublime and the grotesque of city life, all these now surged up as the currency of poetry, and the new young public was electrified.
Coupled necessarily with this liberation of subject-matter came an equally dynamic expansion of the verbal range open to the poet, and a relaxation of rhetoric. Later in the century Rimbaud and Laforgue would propel this revolution towards completion, but the Romantics certainly opened the way to modernism. A formerly rarefied sphere was invaded by both exotic and popular terminology, and by the realism of concrete nouns and adjectives. An invigorating verbosity reigned for a rime until first Nerval and then Baudelaire demonstrated the rich connotative potential of dynamic concision.
In versification the long-established Alexandrine (12-syllable) line remained dominant, but the Romantics gave it some rhythmic suppleness by mobilizing and sometimes multiplying the caesura1 and by frequent use of enjambement.1 These techniques subverted the intellectual symmetry inherent in the classical Alexandrine line, with its strict midpoint caesura and its end-stopped wholeness, in favour of a more fluid reproduction of the ebb and flow of feelings and ideas. The new poets unveiled the musical potential of language, promoting assonance and internal rhyme to complement these more natural rhythms, and to draw the reader’s sensibility more fully into the poem. Poetry became more intuitive in both creation and reception, as form and content found a more organic relationship, and a more subliminal use of language was initiated that would be perfected by Verlaine in the late 1860s. Baudelaire, for his part, would develop the Romantic intimation that we live in a forest of mysterious and interconnected signs. He senses that their significance can be glimpsed as yet only intermittently by the artist’s receptive soul, but their vast harmonious beauty is to be revealed progressively in the future.
