When Facebook and Twitter: Clive Thompson. September 5, 2008. “Brave New World of Digital Intimacy.” The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2008/09/07/magazine/07awareness-t.html.
While early tweets: 2006 tweets are via the bot @VeryOldTweets, twitter.com/veryoldtweets, which retweets tweets from 2006. Tweets: Ray McClure. March 30, 2006. twitter.com/rayreadyray/status/696. Biz Stone. April 13, 2006. twitter.com/biz/status/2033. Sharon. May 9, 2006. twitter.com/sharon/status/3913. Telene. June 18, 2006. twitter.com/telene/status/7030. (The last is a quote of @jack’s first status.) Jason_G. June 8, 2006. twitter.com/jason_g/status/6335. Sara M. Williams. April 7, 2006. twitter.com/sara/status/1483. Note the lack of @mentions: Jack. May 3, 2006. twitter.com/jack/status/3431. Jeremy. May 16, 2006. twitter.com/jeremy/status/4532. Dom Sagolla. April 8, 2006. twitter.com/dom/status/1607.
an average of fifty minutes: James B. Stewart. May 5, 2016. “Facebook Has 50 Minutes of Your Time Each Day. It Wants More.” The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2016/05/06/business/facebook-bends-the-rules-of-audience-engagement-to-its-advantage.html.
Yet social media posts: J. J. Colao. November 27, 2012. “Snapchat: The Biggest No-Revenue Mobile App Since Instagram.” Forbes. www.forbes.com/sites/jjcolao/2012/11/27/snapchat-the-biggest-no-revenue-mobile-app-since-instagram/#1499ff0e7200.
like Instagram and Snapchat: Somini Sengupta, Nicole Perlroth, and Jenna Wortham. April 13, 2012. “Behind Instagram’s Success, Networking the Old Way.” The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2012/04/14/technology/instagram-founders-were-helped-by-bay-area-connections.html.
a new format for posts: Robinson Meyer. August 3, 2016. “Why Instagram ‘Borrowed’ Stories from Snapchat.” The Atlantic. www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/08/cameras-with-constraints/494291/. Ian Bogost. May 3, 2018. “Why ‘Stories’ Took Over Your Smartphone.” The Atlantic. www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2018/05/smartphone-stories-snapchat-instagram-facebook/559517/.
“Third place conversation”: Ray Oldenburg. 1989. The Great Good Place: Cafes, Coffee Shops, Community Centers, Beauty Parlors, General Stores, Bars, Hangouts, and How They Get You Through the Day. Paragon House.
Popular email lists: (No author cited.) January 7, 2000. “Mailing List History.” Living Internet. www.livinginternet.com/l/li.htm.
later technology such as: Lori Kendall. 2002. Hanging Out in the Virtual Pub: Masculinities and Relationships Online. University of California Press. Eric Thomas and L-Soft International, Inc. 1996. Early History of LISTSERV®. L-Soft International. www.lsoft.com/products/listserv-history.asp. David Barr. 1995. “So You Want to Create an Alt Newsgroup.” FAQs.org. www.faqs.org/faqs/alt-creation-guide/.
Multiplayer online games: Constance A. Steinkuehler and Dimitri Williams. 2006. “Where Everybody Knows Your (Screen) Name: Online Games as ‘Third Places.’” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 11. pp. 885–909.
import your friends: Valentina Rao. 2008. “Facebook Applications and Playful Mood: The Construction of Facebook as a ‘Third Place.’” In Artur Lugmayr, Frans Mäyrä, Heljä Franssila, and Katri Lietsala, eds., Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Entertainment and Media in the Ubiquitous Era. ACM. pp. 8–12.
most popular general-interest forum: Alexa Internet, Inc. Visited May 2018. “The Top 500 Sites on the Web.” Alexa. www.alexa.com/topsites.
has subdivisions for everything: r/ShowerThoughts and r/IAmA, respectively.
Estimates are low: Amanda Lenhart and Susannah Fox. July 19, 2006. “Bloggers.” Pew Research Center. www.pewinternet.org/2006/07/19/bloggers/.
regularly participate in forums: Jakob Nielsen. October 9, 2006. “The 90-9-1 Rule for Participation Inequality in Social Media and Online Communities.” Nielsen Norman Group. www.nngroup.com/articles/participation-inequality/.
technologist Jess Kimball Leslie: Jess Kimball Leslie. 2017. I Love My Computer Because My Friends Live in It. Running Press.
These IM status messages: Georgia Webster. May 26, 2012. “Sparkly Unicorn Punctuation Is Invading the Internet.” Superlinguo. www.superlinguo.com/post/23773752322/sparkly-unicorn-punctuation-is-invading-the. Eric S. Raymond, ed. December 29, 2003. “studlycaps.” The on-line hacker Jargon File, version 4.4.7. www.catb.org/jargon/html/S/studlycaps.html.
“~* iT’s ThE eNd Of An ErA *~”: The New York Times. December 14, 2017. twitter.com/nytimes/status/941337112598675458, linking to: Daniel Victor. October 6, 2017. “A Going-Away Message: AOL Instant Messenger Is Shutting Down.” The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2017/10/06/technology/aol-aim-shut-down.html. Emma Gray. September 18, 2012. “‘Your Away Message’ Twitter Makes Us Nostalgic for Our AIM Days (BRB! LOL! A/S/L?).” The Huffington Post. www.huffingtonpost.ca/entry/your-away-message-twitter-millenials-nostalgia_n_1893749.
Studies note that post-internet teens: Jean W. Twenge. December 27, 2017. “Why Teens Aren’t Partying Anymore.” Wired. www.wired.com/story/why-teens-arent-partying-anymore/. (No author cited.) January 11, 2018. “Cutting Adolescents’ Use of Social Media Will Not Solve Their Problems.” The Economist. www.economist.com/news/leaders/21734463-better-give-them-more-homework-and-let-them-hang-out-more-friends-unsupervised-cutting.
Moreover, third places: Robert Kraut, Carmen Egido, and Jolene Galegher. 1988. “Patterns of Contact and Communication in Scientific Research Collaboration.” In Proceedings of the 1988 ACM Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work. ACM. pp. 1–12.
privacy of political or religious: Philipp K. Masur and Michael Scharkow. 2016. “Disclosure Management on Social Network Sites: Individual Privacy Perceptions and User-Directed Privacy Strategies.” Social Media + Society 2(1). Natalya N. Bazarova. 2012. “Public Intimacy: Disclosure Interpretation and Social Judgments on Facebook.” Journal of Communication 62(5). pp. 815–832. Natalya N. Bazarova and Yoon Hyung Choi. 2014. “Self-Disclosure in Social Media: Extending the Functional Approach to Disclosure Motivations and Characteristics on Social Network Sites.” Journal of Communication 64(4). pp. 635–657.
A law paper by Woodrow Hartzog: Woodrow Hartzog and Frederic D. Stutzman. 2013. “Obscurity by Design.” Washington Law Review 88. University of Washington School of Law. pp. 385–418.
A study of Estonian teens: Egle Oolo and Andra Siibak. 2013. “Performing for One’s Imagined Audience: Social Steganography and Other Privacy Strategies of Estonian Teens on Networked Publics.” Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 7(1).
A study of queer youth: Stefanie Duguay. 2014. “‘He Has a Way Gayer Facebook Than I Do’: Investigating Sexual Identity Disclosure and Context Collapse on a Social Networking Site.” New Media & Society 18(6). pp. 891–907.
Technologist danah boyd: danah boyd and Alice Marwik. 2011. “Social Steganography: Privacy in Networked Publics.” Presented at International Communication Association conference, May 28, 2011, Boston. www.danah.org/papers/2011/Steganography-ICAVersion.pdf. danah boyd. August 23, 2010. “Social Steganography: Learning to Hide in Plain Sight.” Originally posted to Digital Media & Learning. Archived at www.zephoria.org/thoughts/archives/2010/08/23/social-steganography-learning-to-hide-in-plain-sight.html.
“Thanks @RyanS”: Autumn Edwards and Christina J. Harris. 2016. “To Tweet or ‘Subtweet’? Impacts of Social Networking post Directness and Valence on Interpersonal Impressions.” Computers in Human Behavior 63. pp. 304–310.
they might write: An Xiao Mina. 2014. “Batman, Pandaman and the Blind Man: A Case Study in Social Change Memes and Internet Censorship in China.” Journal of Visual Culture 13(3).
“Harmony” itself: Jason Q. Ng. 2013. Blocked on Weibo: What Gets Suppressed on China’s Version of Twitter (and Why). New Press. Victor Mair. August 23, 2013. “Blocked on Weibo.” Language Log. languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=6163.
Other accounts simply became inactive: Eshwar Chandrasekharan, Umashanthi Pavalanathan, Anirudh Srinivasan, Adam Glynn, Jacob Eisenstein, and Eric
Gilbert. 2017. “You Can’t Stay Here: The Efficacy of Reddit’s 2015 Ban Examined Through Hate Speech.” Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 1(2). pp. 31–53.
Researchers asked soccer fans: Leonie Rösner and Nicole C. Krämer. 2016. “Verbal Venting in the Social Web: Effects of Anonymity and Group Norms on Aggressive Language Use in Online Comments.” Social Media + Society 2(3). Anil Dash. July 20, 2011. “If Your Website’s Full of Assholes, It’s Your Fault.” Anil Dash: A blog about making culture. Since 1999. anildash.com/2011/07/20/if_your_websites_full_of_assholes_its_your_fault-2/.
Chapter 7. Memes and Internet Culture
A lot of people will declare: Bert Vaux and Scott Golder. 2003. The Harvard Dialect Survey. Harvard University Linguistics Department. www4.uwm.edu/FLL/linguistics/dialect/staticmaps/q_95.html.
A smaller number of people: Gretchen McCulloch. June 20, 2017. twitter.com/GretchenAMcC/status/877250919053885440.
So clear was it to residents: Marek Stachowski and Robert Woodhouse. 2015. “The Etymology of İstanbul: Making Optimal Use of the Evidence.” Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia 20(4). pp. 221–245.
When Richard Dawkins introduced: Richard Dawkins. 1976. The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press.
“Someone made an extension”: Modeled after the real-life example cited here with simply a minor pop-cultural update. The original extension hid the name “Justin Bieber,” but the millennials > snake people extension does exist. Philip Hensher. October 12, 2012. “Invoke the Nazis and You’ve Lost the Argument.” The Independent. www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/invoke-the-nazis-and-you-ve-lost-the-argument-8209712.html.
in an article for Wired: Mike Godwin. October 1, 1994. “Meme, Counter-Meme.” Wired. www.wired.com/1994/10/godwin-if-2/.
Existing netizens: Eric S. Raymond, ed. December 29, 2003. “September that never ended.” The on-line hacker Jargon File, version 4.4.7. www.catb.org/jargon/html/S/September-that-never-ended.html.
Weird cultural artifacts: Limor Shifman. 2014. Memes in Digital Culture. MIT Press.
Rather than re-uploading: Bill Lefurgy. May 28, 2012. “What Is the Best Term to Categorize a Lolcat Image and Text?” English Language & Usage Stack Exchange. english.stackexchange.com/questions/69210/what-is-the-best-term-to-categorize-a-lolcat-image-and-text. Hugo. September 11, 2008. “Antedatings of ‘image macro.’” LINGUIST List. listserv.linguistlist.org/pipermail/ads-l/2013-September/128420.html, via Ben Zimmer. 2011. “Among the New Words.” American Speech 86(4). pp. 454–479.
People started sharing pictures: Lev Grossman. July 16, 2007. “Lolcats Addendum: Where I Got the Story Wrong.” Techland, Time. techland.time.com/2007/07/16/lolcats_addendum_where_i_got_t/.
the lolcat phenomenon: Lev Grossman. July 12, 2007. “Creating a Cute Cat Frenzy.” Time. content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1642897,00.html.
had their text added manually: Jerry Langton. September 22, 2007. “Funny How ‘Stupid’ Site Is Addictive.” Toronto Star. www.thestar.com/life/2007/09/22/funny_how_stupid_site_is_addictive.html.
These meme generator sites: Kate Brideau and Charles Berret. 2014. “A Brief Introduction to Impact: ‘The Meme Font.’” Journal of Visual Culture 13(3). pp. 307–313.
Technologist Kate Miltner: Kate Miltner. 2014. “There’s No Place For Lulz on LOLCats: The Role of Genre, Gender, and Group Identity in the Interpretation and Enjoyment of an Internet Meme.” First Monday 19(8). www.ojphi.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/5391/4103.
Rather than dive: Lauren Gawne and Jill Vaughn. 2012. “I Can Haz Language Play: The Construction of Language and Identity in LOLspeak.” Proceedings of the 42nd Australian Linguistic Society Conference. pp. 97–122. digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/9398/5/Gawne_ICanHaz2012.pdf. Jordan Lefler. 2011. “I Can Has Thesis?” Master’s thesis, Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College. assets.documentcloud.org/documents/282753/lefler-thesis.pdf. Aliza Rosen. 2010. “Iz in Ur Meme / Aminalizin Teh Langwich: A Linguistic Study of LOLcats.” Verge 7. mdsoar.org/bitstream/handle/11603/2606/Verge_7_Rosen.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
pondered the quotes: triscodeca. June 26, 2000. Quoteland forums. forum.quoteland.com/eve/forums/a/tpc/f/487195441/m/840191541. The Philosoraptor image wasn’t created until 2008.
Its organizers ultimately decided: Tim Hwang and Christina Xu. 2014. “‘Lurk More’: An Interview with the Founders of ROFLCon.” Journal of Visual Culture 13(3). pp. 376–387.
Japanese teacher Atsuko Sato: Kyle Chayka. December 31, 2013. “Wow this is doge.” The Verge. www.theverge.com/2013/12/31/5248762/doge-meme-rescue-dog-wow.
wrote a linguistic analysis: Gretchen McCulloch. February 6, 2014. “A Linguist Explains the Grammar of Doge. Wow.” The Toast. the-toast.net/2014/02/06/linguist-explains-grammar-doge-wow/.
“My moment of reckoning”: Ryan M. Milner. 2016. The World Made Meme: Public Conversations and Participatory Media. MIT Press.
“Know Your Meme was written”: Whitney Phillips. 2015. This Is Why We Can’t Have Nice Things. MIT Press.
This phenomenon spawned: Dawn Chmielewski. September 30, 2016. “Internet Memes Emerge as 2016 Election’s Political Dog Whistle.” USA Today. www.usatoday.com/story/tech/news/2016/09/30/internet-memes-white-house-election-president/91272490/. Douglas Haddow. November 4, 2016. “Meme Warfare: How the Power of Mass Replication Has Poisoned the US Election.” The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/nov/04/political-memes-2016-election-hillary-clinton-donald-trump. Gabriella Lewis. March 20, 2016. “We Asked an Expert If Memes Could Determine the Outcome of the Presidential Election.” Vice. www.vice.com/en_us/article/kwxdqa/we-asked-an-expert-if-memes-could-determine-the-outcome-of-the-presidential-election.
a Know Your Meme entry: Mom Rivers. February 22, 2016. “2016 United States Presidential Election.” Know Your Meme. knowyourmeme.com/memes/events/2016-united-states-presidential-election.
official HillaryClinton.com meme: Elizabeth Chan. September 12, 2016. “Donald Trump, Pepe the Frog, and White Supremacists: An Explainer.” The Office of Hillary Rodham Clinton. www.hillaryclinton.com/feed/donald-trump-pepe-the-frog-and-white-supremacists-an-explainer/ [inactive].
“By all means, compare”: Mike Godwin. August 13, 2017. twitter.com/sfmnemonic/status/896884949634232320.
cute doggos and puppers: Brian Feldman. August 10, 2016. “The Next Frontier in Internet Culture Is Wholesome Memes About Loving Your Friends.” New York. nymag.com/selectall/2016/08/the-next-frontier-in-internet-culture-is-wholesome-memes.html knowyourmeme.com/memes/wholesome-memes.
“We’re the ones”: Taylor Lorenz. April 27, 2017. “Inside the Elite Meme Wars of America’s Most Exclusive Colleges.” Mic. mic.com/articles/175420/ivy-league-college-meme-wars.
the newer memes: Aja Romano. May 15, 2018. “‘Is This a Meme?’ The Confused Anime Guy and His Butterfly, Explained.” Vox. www.vox.com/2018/5/15/17351806/is-this-a-pigeon-anime-butterfly-meme-explained.
Harold Godwinson: Martin Foys. 2009. Pulling the Arrow Out: The Legend of Harold’s Death and the Bayeux Tapestry. Boydell and Brewer. pp. 158–175.
members of the Leek Embroidery Society: Reading Borough Council. 2014. “Britain’s Bayeux Tapestry at Reading Museum.” www.bayeuxtapestry.org.uk/bayeuxinfo.htm.
Game of Thrones Bayeux Tapestry: www.ireland.com/game-of-thrones-tapestry/. Felicity Campbell. July 25, 2017. “Northern Ireland Unveils Giant Game of Thrones Tapestry.” The National. www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/television/northern-ireland-unveils-giant-game-of-thrones-tapestry-1.614078.
I later learned that Susan Kare: Alex Soojung-Kim Pang. September 8, 2000. “Interview with Susan Kare.” Making the Macintosh: Technology and Culture in Silicon Valley. web.stanford.edu/dept/SUL/library/mac/primary/interviews/kare/trans.html. Alexandra Lange. April 19, 2018. “The Woman Who Gave the Macintosh a Smile.” The New Yorker. www.newyorker.com/culture/cultural-comment/the-woman-w
ho-gave-the-macintosh-a-smile.
a 1902 dictionary: William Dwight Whitney. 1902. The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia. Century.
Physically mailed chain letters: Daniel W. VanArsdale. 1998. “Chain Letter Evolution.” www.silcom.com/~barnowl/chain-letter/evolution.html. Daniel W. VanArsdale. June 21, 2014. “The Origin of Money Chain Letters.” www.silcom.com/~barnowl/chain-letter/TOOMCL-Final.html.
“faxlore” or “Xeroxlore”: Michael J. Preston. 1974. “Xerox-lore.” Keystone Folklore 19(1). babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000108623293;view=1up;seq=19.
mock-German warning: Eric S. Raymond, ed. December 29, 2003. “blinkenlights.” The on-line hacker Jargon File, version 4.4.7. www.catb.org/jargon/html/B/blinkenlights.html.
Public figures and archetypes: Jimmy Stamp. October 23, 2012. “Political Animals: Republican Elephants and Democratic Donkeys.” Smithsonian. www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/political-animals-republican-elephants-and-democratic-donkeys-89241754/.
Martin Luther, in a pamphlet: Dan Backer. 1996. “A Brief History of Political Cartoons.” xroads.virginia.edu/~ma96/puck/part1.html.
Personifications of places: David M. Robinson. 1917. “Caricature in Ancient Art.” The Bulletin of the College Art Association of America 1(3). pp. 65–68.
Laughing at a racist: Ronald de Souza. 1987. “When Is It Wrong to Laugh?” In J. Morreall, ed. The Philosophy of Laughter and Humor. State University of New York Press. pp. 226–249.
far-right discussion forums: Alice Marwick and Rebecca Lewis. May 15, 2017. “Media Manipulation and Disinformation Online.” Data & Society. datasociety.net/output/media-manipulation-and-disinfo-online/.
Erin McKean tweeted: Erin McKean. June 21, 2017. twitter.com/emckean/status/877711672684584960.
It’s never been easier: An Xiao Mina. January 26, 2017. “How Pink Pussyhats and Red MAGA Caps Went Viral.” Civicist. civichall.org/civicist/how-pink-pussyhats-and-red-maga-caps-went-viral/.
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