From his provinces, Hadrian had already answered requests about the persecution of a most 'wicked superstition', the beliefs held by
members of the Christian churches. Hadrian's answers continued to insist that trials must involve individual prosecutors, people who would bring formal charges in public against these Christians. Contrary to the wishes of some leading provincials, he thus insisted that the persecution of Christians must be a formal process, to be publicly pursued with rules. By his judgements, his letters and his edicts, it was Hadrian who now made the laws by which justice was done. As emperor, he was freed from the laws; as an educated man, he was personally free from fears of the underworld. Nonetheless, in a famous poem, he addressed consolatory words to his 'little soul', a future wanderer in a chilly and humourless afterlife. Long centuries of change in the scope of justice, freedom and luxury lay behind Hadrian's outlook from his villa garden. But he had no idea that the Christians, whose harassment he regulated, would then overturn this world by antiquity's greatest realignment of freedom and justice: the 'underworld' would no longer be a garden-designer's fancy.
Notes
HADRIAN AND THE CLASSICAL WORLD
1. Aulus Gellius, 19.8.5.
2.J. M. C. Toynbee, The Hadrianic School: A Chapter in the History of Greek Art (1934).
3. A. Spawforth, S. Walker, in Journal of Roman Studies (1985), 78-104, and (1986), 88-105, are st'" me fundamental studies.
4.Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, 12.1122.
5.Josephus, Jewish War 2.385.
6.Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian 12.6.
7.Tertullian, Apology 5.7.
8.WilliamJ.MacdonaldJohn A. Pinto, Hadn'arc's Villa and Its Legacy (1995).
9.R. Syme, Fictional History Oldand New: Hadrian (1986, lecture), 20-21: 'the notion that Hadrian, if anything, was an Epicurean may engender disquiet or annoyance.' So far, it has not.
10. Sophocles, Antigone 821.
11. F. D. Harvey, in Classica et Mediaevalia (1965), 101-46.
12. Mary T. Boatwright, Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire (2000), an excellent study whose bibliography is important for this book.
13. Naphtali Lewis, in Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies (1991), 267-80, with the history of the scholarly debate over authenticity.
14. G. Daux, in Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique (1970), 609-18, and in Ancient Macedonia II, Institute for Balkan Studies number 155 (1977), 320-23.
CHAPTER I. HOMERIC EPIC
1. L. Godart, A. Sacconi, in Comptes Rendus de L'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (1998), 889-906, and (2001), 527-46.
2. S. Mitchell, in Journal of Roman Studies (1990), 184-5, translating lines 40 ff. of C. Julius Demosthenes' inscription at Oenoanda (ad 124).
3.Homer, Iliad 6.528 and Odyssey ^.323.
4.Homer, Iliad 2.270.
5.Ibid. 16.384-92.
6.Ibid. 18.507-8.
CHAPTER 2. THE GREEKS' SETTLEMENTS
1. M. H. Hansen, in M. H. Hansen (ed.), A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures (2000), 142-86, at 146.
2.W. D. Niemeier, in Aegaeum (1999), 141-55.
3.J. D. Hawkins, in Anatolian Studies (2000), 1-31.
4.Plutarch, Greek Questions ri.
5.Pliny, Natural History 19.10-n.
6.S. Amigues, in Revue Archeologique (r988), 227.
7.S. Amigues, in Journal des Savants (2004), 191-226, contesting the recently revived identification with Cachrys ferulacea.
8.Diodorus, 13.81.5 and 83.3.
9.T. J. Dunbabin, The Western Greeks (1948), 77 and 365.
10.P. A. Hansen (ed.), Carmina Epigraphica Graeca, Volume I (1983), number 400: Robert Parker kindly cited this for me.
11. J. Reynolds, in Journal of Roman Studies (1978), 113, lines 2-12, and, for the local side to it, see A. J. Spawforth and Susan Walker, ibid. (1986), 98-101, a fascinating study.
CHAPTER 3. ARISTOCRATS
1. Hesiod, Theogony 80-93 an<4. Works and Days 39.
2.Aristotle, Politics 1306A 1 5-20.
3.Homer, Iliad 3.222.
4.O. Murray, in Apoikia: scritti in onore di Giorgio Buchner, AION n.s. 1 (i994)> 47~54>ior this dating.
5.M. Vickers, Greek Symposia (Joint Association of Classical Teachers, London, n.d.).
6.L. Foxhall, in Lynette G. Mitchell and P. J. Rhodes (eds.), The Development of the Polis in Archaic Greece (1997), 130, gives calculations, perhaps on the high end of the scale.
7.Jacob Burckhardt, The Greeks and Greek Civilization, abridged and translated by Sheila Stern (1998), 179. I incline to his view, which is still controversial.
8.H. W. Pleket, in Peter Garnsey, Keith Hopkins and C. R. Whittaker (eds.),
Trade in the Ancient Economy (1983), 131-44, the model which essentially I follow on this vexed question throughout this book.
CHAPTER 4. THE IMMORTAL GODS
1. Homer, Iliad z}.y$-6 and roo.
2. Homeric Hymn to Apollo 189-9 3.
3. Erich Csapo, Theories of Mythology (2005), 165-71.
4.Robert Parker, in J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray (eds.), The Oxford History of the Classical World (1986), 266.
5.Homer, Odyssey 11.241-4.
6.Ibid. 11.251 and Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite 286-9, with P. Maas, Kleine Schriften (1973), 66-7, implying the gods make love only to virgins. But Helen's mother Leda was not one.
7. Prices from Attic data only, in M. H. Jameson, in Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society, supplementary volume 14 (1988), 9t.
8.Hesiod, Theogony 418-52 with M. L. West's Commentary (1971 edn.), 276-91.
9.Homeric Hymn to Apollo 390-end, with the remarkable study by W. G. Forrest, in Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique (1956), 33-52.
10.Adrienne Mayor, in Archaeology 28 (1999), 32-40.
11. W. G. Forrest, in Historia (1959), 174.
CHAPTER 5. TYRANTS AND LAWGIVERS
1. Hesiod, Works and Days 225-37.
2. Chester G. Starr, The Origins of Greek Civilization (1962), part III, for the phrase I reapply here.
3. Anthologia Palatina 14.93.
4.Solon F36 (West).
5.Solon F4 (West), line 18.
6.Solon F36 (West).
7. R. F. Willetts, The Law Code of Gortyn (1967), with a possible translation; A. L. Di Lello-Finuoli, in D. Musti (ed.), La transizione dal Miceneo all'Arcaismo ... Roma, 14-19 Marzo, 19SS (1991), 215-30; K. R. Kris-tensen, in Classica et Medievalia (1994), 5-26.
8.E. Levy, in P. Brule and J. Oulken (eds.), Esclavage, guerre, economic en Grece ancienne: Hommages a Yvon Garlan (1997), 25-41, is fundamental here.
9.Aristotle, Athenaion Politeia 7.3-4; on the (non-numerical) classes, see
(correctly) G. E. M. de Sainte Croix, Athenian Democratic Origins (2.004), 5-72; I must stress that the '300' and '200' measures for hippeis and zeugites are only an Aristotelian guess (eulogotera) and are not historical. Zeugitai, like (e.g.) boarii in early medieval law-codes, owned oxen; hippeis owned horses. It is unfortunate that these Aristotelian guesses are too often taken as key 'statistical' sources for the archaic state's economy and land-holdings.
10.Pausanias, 6.4.8.
11.Aelian, Varia Historia 2.29.
CHAPTER 6. SPARTA
1. J. Reynolds, in Journal of Roman Studies (1978), 113, lines 39-43; Paul Cartledge and Antony Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta (1992 edn.), 113.
2.A. Andrewes, Probouleusis: Sparta's Contribution to the Technique of Government (1954).
3.Plutarch, Greek Questions 4, with G. Grote, A History of Greece, volume II (1888, revised edn.), 266 and note 2 for the relevance of it at 'Laconian' Cnidus.
4.Homer, Odyssey 17.487; A. Andrewes, in Classical Quarterly (1938), 89-91.
5.Terpander in Plutarch, Life of Lycurgus 21.4.
6.Mucianus, cited in Pliny, Natural History 19.12.
CHAPTER 7. THE EASTERN GREEKS
1. Homeric Hymn to Apollo 146-55.
2.Herodotus, 2.152.4.
3.Sappho F 39 (Diehl), with (independently of mine) the fine observations by John Raven, Plants and Plant Lore in Ancient Greece (2000), 9.
4.J. D. P. Bolton, Aristeas (1962), a brilliant study, although his pp. 8-10 take a more cautious view of Longinus, On the Sublime 10.4 (his F7, p. 208).
5.Text of the Oath in Loeb Library, Hippocrates, volume I, translated by W. H. S. Jones (1933), 298, with Vivian Nutton, Hippocratic Morality and Modern Medicine, in Entretiens de la Fondation Hardt, volume XLIII (1997), 31-63.
6.Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 12.541A, Ps.-Aristotle, De Mirabilibus 96 and the brilliant study by J. Heurgon, Scripta Varia (1986), 299.
7.Herodotus, 1.164.3.
CHAPTER 8. TOWARDS DEMOCRACY
1. Herodotus, 1.152.3.
2. P. A. Cartledge, Agesilaos (1987), 10-11.
3. A. Andrewes, The Greek Tyrants (1956), chapter VI, for this fine phrase.
4.Herodotus, 5.72.2, with P. J. Rhodes, Ancient Democracy and Modern Ideology (2003), 112-13 and notes 17 and 19.
5.Mogens H. Hansen, The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes (1991), 220.
6.Herodotus, 5.78.1; E. Badian (ed.), Ancient Society and Institutions: Studies Presented to V. Ehrenberg (1966), 115.
7. Herodotus, 5.73.3.
CHAPTER 9. THE PERSIAN WARS
1. Herodotus, i.2i2-r4.
2.Ibid. 1.153.1-2.
3. Section 8 of the Naqsh-i-Rustam DN-b text, as rendered in P. Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander, translated by Peter T. Daniels (2002), 212.
4.J. S. Morrison, J. F. Coates and N. B. Rankov, The Athenian Trireme (2000, rev. edn.), 250 and 252.
5.Herodotus, 6.112.3.
6.V. D. Hanson, The Western Way of War (1989), 158 and 175, also now in Hans van Wees, Greek Warfare (2004), 184.
7.Homer, Iliad 2.872.
8.Found by M. H. Jameson and concisely discussed in R. Meiggs and D. M. Lewis, A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions (1988 edn.), number 23.
9.R. Etienne and M. Pierart, in Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique (i975)> 51-
10. Deborah Boedeker and David Sider (eds.), The New Simonides (1996).
11. Angelos P. Matthaiou, in Peter Derow and Robert Parker (eds.), Herodotus and His World (2003), 190-202.
12. Herodotus, 8.83.
CHAPTER io. THE WESTERN GREEKS
1. Pindar, Pythian 1.75.
2. Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian 13.3.
3. Ps.-Plato, Seventh Letter 326B.
4.Pindar, Olympian 5.13-14.
5.T. J. Dunbabin, The Western Greeks (1948), p. vii.
6.F. Cordano, Le tessere pubbliche dal tempio di Atena a Camarina (1992); O. Murray, in Mogens H. Hansen (ed.), The Polis as an Urban Centre and as a Political Community: Acts of the Copenhagen Polis Centre, volume IV (i997)5 493-504-
7. Michael H. Jameson, David R. Jordan and Roy D. Kotansky, A Lex Sacra from Selinous (1993).
8.Pindar, F106 (Maehler): I owe this to P. J. Wilson.
9.Herodotus, 7.164.1.
10. A. Giovannini, 'Le Sel et la fortune de Rome', in Athenaeum (1985), 373-87, a brilliant study.
11. Livy, 3.31.8, with R. M. Ogilvie, A Commentary on Livy, Books r-5 (1965), 449-50, for the variants and a sceptical view.
CHAPTER 11. CONQUEST AND EMPIRE
1. Herodotus, 5.92 on isokratia.
2. Pindar, Pythian 7.18-19.
3.Herodotus, 8.124.3.
4.Pliny, Natural History 18.144.
5.Thucydides, 2.65.2 is important here; A. G. Geddes, in Classical Quarterly (1987), 307-31, for the problematic question of dress.
6.Thucydides, 2.63.2 and 3.37.2.
CHAPTER 12. A CHANGING GREEK CULTURAL WORLD
1. Hippocrates, Epidemics 1.1; Jean Pouilloux, Recherches sur I'histoire et les cultes de Thasos, volume I (1954), 249-50 is crucial for the dating, but I identify the mention of the 'new wall' with Thasos' new wall built by the 460s, and I keep Polygnotus and therefore 'Antiphon, son of Critoboulus' up in the 460s too. I acknowledge many discussions of this rare point with the late D. M. Lewis, who agreed.
2.Herodotus, 3.80.3.
3.J. S. Morrison, J. F. Coates and N. B. Rankov, The Athenian Trireme (2000), 238.
4.Athenaeus, 14.619A, with Walter Scheidel, in Greece and Rome (1996), 1.
5.Ps.-Demosthenes, 59.122.
6.Ps.-Xenophon, Constitution of the Athenians 3.2 and 3.8.
7. David Harvey and John Wilkins, The Rivals of Aristophanes (2000).
8.Alberto Cesare Cassio, in Classical Quarterly (1985), 38-42.
CHAPTER 13. PERICLES AND ATHENS
1.H. L. Hudson-Williams, in Classical Quarterly (1951), 68-73, on 'pamphlets'; Harvey Yunis (ed.), 'Written Texts and the Rise of Literate Culture in Ancient Greece (2003), has all the bibliography.
2.Thucydides, 2.65.9.
3. Ion, in Plutarch, Life of Pericles 5.3.
4.Plato, Menexenus, with the comic Callias Fi 5 (Kock), for this sort of joke.
5.Plutarch, Life of Pericles 24.9.
6.Ibid. 8.7.
7.Glenn R. Bugh, The Horsemen of Athens (1988), 52-78.
8.Thucydides, 2.41.4.
9.J. M. Mansfield, 'The Robe of Athena and the Panathenaic Peplos' (Dissertation, Univ. of California, Berkeley 1985), supplementing D. M. Lewis, Selected Papers in Greek and Near Eastern History (1997), 131-2.
10.Aeneas Tacticus, 31.24.
11. Thucydides, 2.40.2.
12. Plutarch, Life of Pericles 3.5 and 13.5, with Anthony J. Podlecki, Perikles and His Circle (1998), 172, citing A. L. Robkin for the view I, too, have always preferred.
CHAPTER 14. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR
1. M. H. Jameson, in R. G. Osborne and S. Hornblower (eds.), Ritual, Finance and Politics (1994), 307.
2.Thucydides, 3.36.6; 5.16.x; 8.73.3; 8.97.2.
3. Xenophon, Hellenica 2.3.39; Thucydides, 7.86.5.
4.Thucydides, 1.22.3.
5.Thucydides, 2.27.1, whereas Herodotus, 6.91.1, adduces a religious explanation.
CHAPTER 15. SOCRATES
1. Diogenes Laertius, 2.40; on the sense of 'theous nomizein', I confess to preferring J. Tate, in Classical Review (1936), 3 and (1937), 3.
2.Xenophon, Symposium 2.10.
3. Aristophanes, Clouds 1506-9.
4.Plutarch, Life of Pericles 32.2 with L. Woodbury, in Phoenix (1981), 295 and M. Ostwald, From Popular Sovereignty to the Sovereignty ofLaw (1986), 528-31.
5. Xenophon, Symposium 8.2.
CHAPTER 16. FIGHTING FOR FREEDOM AND JUSTICE
1. Plutarch, Life of Lysander 30.3-5.
2. Diodorus, 15.54.3; Xenophon, Hellenica 6.4.7; Plutarch, Life of Pelopidas 20.4-21.1; Plutarch, Moralia 856F; Pausanias, 9.13.5.
3. K. J. Dover, Greek Homosexuality (1978), 190-94.
4.Xenophon, Hellenica 7.5.27.
CHAPTER 17. WOMEN AND CHILDREN
1. John M. Oakley, in Jenifer Neils and John H. Oakley, Coming of Age in Ancient Greece: Images of Childhood from the Classical Past (2003), 174, and catalogue 115, on pp. 162 and 174.
2.Aeschines, 3.77-8.
3. D. Ogden, Greek Bastardy (1996), 199-203.
4.Plato Comicus F143 and F188, with James Davidson, Courtesans and Fishcakes (1998), 118.
5.L. Llewellyn-Jones, Aphrodite's Tortoise (2003), is important here, citing (p. 62) Heracleides Criticus, 1.18; compare Tanagra, mythe et archeologie, Louvre catalogue 15 September 2003-5 January 2004 (Paris, 2003), which is excellent, especially number 101 from Athens (a veiled prostitute?).
6.Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum, volume XV (1958), 384 and J. M. Hannick, in Antiquite Classique (1976), 133-48.
7.Justin, Epitome 7.5.4-9.
CHAPTER 18. PHILIP OF MACEDON
1. Arrian, Indica 18.6-7; on Aristotle's view, note the case advanced by P. A. Brunt, Studies in Greek History and Thought (1993), 334-6.
2. E. Voutiras, Revue des Etudes Grecques (1996), 678, with Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum, volume XLVI (1996), 776, and volume XLIX
(1999), 759-
3. Arrian, Anabasis 1.10.1, and Diodorus, 17.16.3, which I accept, differing from A. B. Bosworth, Commentary on Arrian's History of Alexander, volume I (1980), 97, who credits Arrian with an 'error'.
4.Plutarch, Life of Alexander 39.2-3.
5. M. W. Dickie, in Zeitscbrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 109 (1995), 81-6 and L. Rossi, ibid. ri2 (1996), 59; Poseidippus F44 (ed. Austin-Bastiniani).
6.Ps.-Demosthenes, 17.15.
7. Plutarch, Moralia 179 C-D.
CHAPTER 19. THE TWO PHILOSOPHERS
1. Plato, Republic 558C; the entire section, starting at 555B, is brilliantly malign.
2.Plato, Laws 636B-D4; 836B8-C7; 836D9-E4; 841D4-5; G. E. M. de Sainte Croix used to lecture with great force on Plato as the first attested 'Greek homophobe', citing the Laws, including Laws 636C5 which applies, too, to 'lesbians'.
3.Laws 907E-910D; for 'corrective' punishment, T. J. Saunders, Plato's Penal Code: Tradition, Controversy and Reform in Greek Penology (1991) is a fine study.
4.Aristotle, Meteorologica 1.352A30, F13 (Rose), F25 (Rose), Metaphysics 1074 Bi-14.
5.Aristotle, History of Animals 523Ai8 and Generation of Animals 736A11-12.
6.Aristotle, Politics 1254A20, explicitly appealing to 'ta gignomena' as proof that slaves exist: 'natural slavery' is not just a theoretical construct of his thinking. P. A. Brunt, Studies in Greek History and Thought (1993), 343-88, is the definitive study on this issue.
7.Aristotle, Politics 1260A12.
8.To the texts in Brunt, Studies in Greek History and Thought, 288-90, a sceptical view, we can add on Cotys' death, Philostratus, Life of Apollonius 7.2 and on Clearchus', Justin, Epitome 16.5.12-13, Philodemus, Index Aca-demicorum 6.13 (Dorandi) and the fiction in I. During, Chion of Heraclea (1951). Memnon 434F1 (Jacoby) says Clearchus himself had 'heard Plato'.
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