The Booklovers' Guide to Wine

by Patrick Alexander

  As a consumer I say, “Jolly good show! Let’s enjoy it. Cheers!”

  Chapter

  4

  TERROIR OF EUROPE

  “Quickly, bring me a beaker of wine, so that I may wet my mind and say something clever.” —Aristophanes

  Terroir vs. Varietal

  An American and a Frenchman attend a corporate dinner, and after returning home they tell their wives about the event. “We started the evening with a deliciously refreshing French Sauvignon Blanc,” the American tells his wife. “Then we had a fabulous Pinot Noir and finished the meal with a sweet white Sémillon.” Meantime, the Frenchman was telling his wife that the deliciously refreshing Pouilly Fumé was followed by a fabulous Chevrey-Chambertin, and that the evening concluded with a great Sauternes. Both men were describing the same wines, but the Frenchman, like most Europeans, was concerned with the provenance of the wine, where it came from—its “terroir.” The American, however, like most non-Europeans, was primarily interested in the grape the wine was made from—its varietal. (The two wives, of course, were simply delighted that their husbands had had an enjoyable evening.)

  Pouilly Fumé is an AOC from the village of Pouilly in the upper Loire valley, where the predominant variety of grape is the Sauvignon Blanc. The nearby village of Sancerre, like all the villages in that region, also only produces Sauvignon Blanc. The Frenchman was telling his wife what sort of Sauvignon Blanc had been served—not a Sancerre, but a Pouilly Fumé, which has more of a smoky, mineral taste than the Sancerre. Likewise, all red wines from Burgundy are made with Pinot Noir grapes, and the Frenchman’s wife would have known that; what was significant was that it came from the commune of Gevrey-Chambertin, which produces some of the world’s most famous wines. Finally, the Frenchman and his wife both know that a wine from the Sauternes region of Bordeaux is sweet and made from the Sémillon grape. That it was a Sauternes was all she needed to know.

  The American, on the other hand, was not being ignorant by ignoring the terroir or provenance of the wines; he simply had a different perspective. Coming from a country where Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, Sémillon, and a whole variety of different grapes could all be found growing within miles of each other, the type of grape is far more important than where it was grown.

  Over the two thousand years that Europeans have been growing vines, they have learned which grape variety is best suited to each different geographic region. Sauvignon Blanc does best in the upper reaches of the Loire, while Chenin Blanc is better suited further down river in the Middle Loire. Towards the mouth and lower reaches of the Loire, the most suitable grape is the Muscadet. In the Americas, however, or Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, where they do not have two thousand years of experience, wine growers are still experimenting to see which varietal works best in which terroir.

  Perhaps the best example of the anti-terroir approach is Penfolds Grange wine from Australia. In 1952, Max Schubert, a winemaker employed by Penfolds winery in South Australia, decided to make a wonderful Australian wine that could compare with the best French Bordeaux. He chose not to use one of the usual Bordeaux varietals such as Cabernet Sauvignon, but to use a classic Australian grape, Shiraz. His focus was on extracting from the grape the essence of all the big-bodied fruit that it contained, and using his winemaking skill to produce one of the world’s great wines. He succeeded—and since 1952, Penfolds Grange has been recognized as Australia’s iconic wine and one of the world’ greatest, with an average price of about $500 per bottle. What is so interesting is that Penfolds completely rejects the concept of terroir. They focus not on where the grape was grown but on what it tastes like. The grapes used to make Grange come from all over South Australia; there is no single vineyard that produces Penfolds Grange. It is the quality of the grape and the skill of the winemaker that counts, not where it was grown, not the terroir.

  Varietal is a French term for grape-type or variety, and obviously different varieties of grapes have different characteristics. A wine made from a Pinot Noir grape, for example, will never look or taste the same as one made from a Pinot Grigio grape. We will discuss a selection of different grape varieties in the next chapter. First we will examine terroir.

  Terroir: Terre is the French word for land, and terroir is the French term that refers to the characteristics of a specific geographic place where the grapes are grown and the wine is made. The concept includes not just the latitude of the vineyard and its specific geographical co-ordinates, such as the distance from the ocean, but also its elevation, whether it slopes north or south, the soil, the drainage, and even the microclimate. For example, within certain small vineyards in Burgundy which have been closely monitored and documented since Roman times, individual sections or climats are known to produce wines superior to others within the same vineyard. “Terroirists” will argue that the unique combination of soil, location, climate, and even the “air” make certain spots so unique that their superior wines can never be reproduced elsewhere. The French in particular have always argued that the unique blend of history, soil, and tradition has made French wines impossible to reproduce or even match in any other country.

  A 2016 report by California’s UC Davis suggests that another factor making each terroir unique is the local collection of bacteria and fungi, or “microbiome,” on pressed grapes, which can help predict the flavor profile of the final product. By sequencing the local microbial DNA, they showed that each individual vineyard, whether in France or California, has its own unique microbiome contributing to the distinctive taste detected in the finished wine.

  The concept of terroir is not new; the Greeks and Romans, and even the Egyptians and Babylonians before them, paid great attention to the geographic origin of their wines. Ancient wine amphorae had the place of origin stamped into the clay, and Roman writers such as Cato, Pliny, Horace, and Virgil all wrote extensively about vintages from specific vineyards in various parts of the empire and beyond. However, it was the French who took the concept to almost mystical levels, with the underlying implication that wines of great quality could be grown only in France.

  The tradition of terroir was most seriously developed in Burgundy, where, since the fall of the Roman Empire, vast areas of land were controlled by the Christian monasteries and abbeys, particularly the Benedictines and Cistercians. Because the monks were such dedicated record keepers they have documented hundreds of years’ worth of data concerning rainfall, temperatures, and crop yield, for every individual plot of land within the region. Their observations and valuations of the wine produced are reflected in the Premier and Grand Cru classifications we still use today.

  On the other hand, it is worth noting that it was a French wine historian, Roger Dion, who argued that the characteristics of the soil and the climate of the terroir in the making of a Grand Cru is of no greater importance than the quality of the paint and the canvas used in the creation of a great painting by Vermeer or Picasso.

  Latitude: In the following pages we will examine many of the world’s wine-producing regions: the Old World of Europe, the New World of North America, and the Southern Hemisphere. It is always interesting to compare the latitudes of wine-producing regions in Europe and North America. As the table of wine latitudes demonstrates (Figure 5), North American wines are grown much further south than they are in Europe. On the other hand, the table also reminds us that Beirut was once one of the world’s centers for fine wine, and a not insignificant portion of nineteenth and early twentieth century French wine was actually grown in Algeria.

  Wine producing regions of the Northern Hemisphere

  North America

  Degrees North

  Europe

  49

  Moselle, Germany

  48

  Champagne & Alsac
e. France

  Seattle, WA

  47

  Chablis, France

  Quebec, Canada

  46

  Dijon, Burgundy, France

  Willamette Valley, OR

  45

  Lyon, Burgundy, France

  44

  Bordeaux, France

  43

  Chianti, Italy

  Finger Lakes, NY

  42

  Rioja, Spain

  41

  Catalonia, Spain

  New York

  40

  Madrid, Spain

  Mendocino, CA

  39

  Puglia, Italy

  38

  Palermo, Sicily, Italy

  Napa Valley, CA

  37

  Seville, Spain

  36

  Cadiz (Jerez), Spain

  Paso Robles, CA

  35

  Algiers, Algeria

  Santa Barbara, CA

  34

  Beirut, Lebanon

  Figure 5: Latitude of Northern Vineyards

  France

  It is very possible that the original inhabitants of Gaul knew about growing grapes and fermenting wines, but the earliest documented cultivation of wine in France was by the Phoenicians, followed by the Greeks, who were planting vines around their colony of Masalia (Marseilles) as early as 600 BC. The Greeks planted vineyards all along the coast of modern Provence and up the Rhône river valley as far north as modern Lyon.

  With the arrival of the Romans around 200 BC, we see the establishment of all the French wine regions that exist today. Initially, the Romans opposed the planting of vines in their new colonies as they were more interested in exporting their own “Italian” wine into new markets, but very rapidly the demand for and consumption of wine in the expanding empire outpaced supply and vineyards were planted throughout Gaul, from the rich river valley of the Rhône to the bare, chalky uplands of Champagne.

  French Wine Classification

  As explained in more detail in Chapter Three, the wine merchants of Bordeaux classified their wines in 1855 based on the previous hundred years’ sales records. With a single exception, that classification remains unchanged 160 years later. The wine merchants of Burgundy followed suit by classifying their own wines in 1861, and then in 1935 the French government introduced a national classification, Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée (AOC), to cover every wine region in France. While the emphasis of the classification is on terroir—the geographic origin of the wine—the regulations can also specify what grape varietals are permitted, the alcohol or residual sugar level, as well as limiting the volume of wine produced per acre.

  The following French wine regions will therefore all have their own AOC, as well as their own subregions. Bordeaux, for example, has about forty-five AOCs, while Burgundy has 106. President De Gaulle famously asked, “How can you govern a country which has 246 varieties of cheese?” He could well have added, “and 338 Appellations of wine.”

  Cru: Cru is a French term most closely translated as growth, being the past participle of the verb croitre (to grow). Although widely used in relationship to wine, it has slightly different meanings in different regions. In Burgundy, the word is used to categorize the two highest levels of classified vineyards, Grand Cru being the best and Premier Cru being second best. In Bordeaux, the 1855 classification divided the wines between Premier Cru (First Growth) down to Cinquieme Cru (Fifth Growth), followed by various levels of Crus Bourgeoises (Bourgeois Growths). Premier Cru is therefore the very best of the best in Bordeaux, while in Burgundy it means only second best. Grand Cru is the very top-level for wines in Burgundy and Alsace, while in St.-Émilion the highest level is Premier Grand Cru Classé A. In Sauternes, on the other hand, the highest level is Premier Cru Supérieur—a level so prestigious that it includes only a single wine, Château d’Yquem.

  Clos: Clos is a French term meaning enclosed. It was used primarily in Burgundy where the Cistercian Monasteries separated the small plots of land with walls made from the rocks in the soil—partly to clear the ground and divide the vineyards, and partly as protection from the Mistral wind. Many vineyards throughout France, not just in Burgundy, have incorporated the word into the name of the vineyard—even when the original wall no longer exists. Examples include:

  Clos Haut-Peyraguey, Clos Fourtet, Clos des Jacobins, Clos de l’Oratoire, Clos Saint-Martin (Bordeaux); Clos Napoléon, Chambertin-Clos de Bèze, Clos de Tart, Clos des Lambrays, Clos de la Roche, Clos Saint-Denis, Clos de Vougeot, Clos des Réas, Clos du Roi, Clos des Ursules, Clos des Mouches, Clos des Épeneaux, Clos du Val, Clos des Chênes (Burgundy); Clos des Goisses, Clos du Mesnil (Champagne ); Clos Sainte-Hune, Clos Sainte-Odile, Clos Saint-Urbain (Alsace); Clos de la Coulée-de-Serrant, Clos du Papillon, Le Grand Clos (Loire); Clos des Papes, Clos du Mont-Olivet, Clos de l’Oratoire des Papes (Rhône).

  The word has also been adopted in the New World, for example: Clos du Bois, Clos du Val, Clos LaChance (California); Clos Clare (Australia); and Clos Henri (New Zealand).

  French Terroir

  Alsace: The wines of Alsace are unique among French, and most other European wines, in having the grape varietal named prominently on the label. Alsatian wines are bottled identically in tall, slender, green bottles, called flûtes d’Alsace, and made from one of the four white noble grapes of Alsace: Riesling, Gewürztraminer, Muscat, or Pinot Gris. Sylvaner is permitted under certain conditions, but it does not qualify as a “noble grape.” Labeling the wines with the name of the varietal was unique to Alsace until the late twentieth century, when Californian wine experts like Frank Schoonmaker and Robert Mondavi adopted the same system.

  Located at the edge of the Roman Empire, along the fault line between Mediterranean and Northern European civilizations, Alsace has passed back and forth between French and German cultures and has accrued influences from both. Surprisingly, for a region which has seen such political turmoil and warfare throughout its history, the major wine producers have been held by the same families for centuries. Hugel & Fils was founded by the Hugel family in 1639; Maison Trimbach was founded by the Trimbach family in 1626; Domaine Zind-Humbrecht was founded by the Humbrecht family in 1620; and the family of Lucian Albrecht has been producing wines in Alsace since 1425. These same families still dominate the Alsace wine trade today.

  Because of their established reputations and ancient histories, the wine growers of Alsace never bothered to apply for any AOC classification status in 1935. It was not until 1975 that any Grand Cru classification was established. Currently there are fifty-one Alsace Grand Crus, each of which must come from a single vineyard and may produce no more than fifty-five hectoliters per hectare, which works out about 240 cases of wine per acre. Two Grand Cru vineyards are permitted to produce Grand Cru blends of the four noble grapes, and one vineyard, Zotzenberg, is permitted to include Sylvaner in the blend.

  The wine region across the border from Alsace in Germany is called Pfalz—or Palatinate—and to all intents and purposes, the two regions share the same climate, the same soil, the same geographic features, similar history, and even grow the same grape varietals, especially Riesling, Gewürztraminer, and Sylvaner. However, the taste of the wines is totally different, which shows the importan
ce of national taste and the winemakers’ skills. A bottle of Riesling or Gewürztraminer in France or in Germany will both look the same—bottled in the tall, slim, green flûtes d’Alsace—but will taste dramatically different. The Alsace bottle is made to be drunk with a meal and will be floral, crisp and dry; the German bottle, however, is not necessarily designed for drinking with food, will be softer and distinctly sweeter than the French version. Germans tend to accompany their meals with beer and reserve wines for drinking alone, unaccompanied by food, as a refreshment.

  Bordeaux: Bordeaux is the largest fine wine area on earth; it is five times the size of Burgundy, and eight times the size of Napa Valley. It contains some nine thousand individual châteaux and forty-five different appellations. It should be noted that the definition of “château” is fairly vague, and while the Bordeaux châteaux include many splendid and imposing architectural gems, some are little more than garden sheds. In the 1855 classification, only five vineyards are listed as châteaux, but by the end of the century the number had increased to over 1,300, and today it is approaching ten thousand.

  Compared to Burgundy, where many vineyards are too small to bottle their own wine and must sell to négociants, Bordeaux boasts many large estates that grow, bottle, and market their own wine on a financially sophisticated and international level. Many of the châteaux are owned by international business conglomerates, like Asian banks or American insurance corporations. Unfortunately, in the past few years, Bordeaux wines have become a status symbol for Chinese billionaires, and consequently the market prices for the wine have soared astronomically. Not content with buying the wine alone, the Chinese have started buying the actual vineyards. This new trend is admirably explored in the film Red Obsession. If Burgundy is terroir-driven with the emphasis being on the precise spot where the grapes were grown, Bordeaux is estate-driven with the emphasis being on the traditional taste of the individual château. In Bordeaux, it is the winemaker who blends the different grapes to create a specific house style, which distinguishes a Château Latour from a Château Lafite. In Burgundy, it is the patch of soil which distinguishes a Montrachet Grand Cru from a Bâtard Montrachet Grand Cru.