6Daly and Wilson (1988, pp. 137–61).
7Daly and Wilson (1988, pp. 123–36).
8Wolfgang (1958).
9Buss (1994, pp. 19–48).
10Thornhill and Palmer (2000); Thornhill and Thornhill (1983).
11Ellis (1998).
12Campbell (1995, 1999).
13Campbell (2002).
14Campbell (1999, p. Notes).
15Browne (2002); Furchtgott-Roth and Stolba (1999); Kanazawa (2005b).
16Greenberg (1985); Hirschi and Gottfredson (1985); Steffensmeier et al. (1989).
17Blumstein (1995); Campbell (1995); Daly and Wilson (1990).
18Miller (1999, p. Chapter 4; emphases added).
19Kanazawa (2003c).
20Kanazawa (2000); Miller (1999).
21Kanazawa (2003c).
22Kanazawa (2003b, 2003c); Kanazawa and Still (2000c); Miller (2000).
23Kanazawa (2003c).
24Trivers (1972).
25Blumstein and Schwartz (1983, pp. 195–8); Laumann et al. (1994, pp. 315–6, table 8.4).
26Kanazawa (2000, 2003c); Miller (1998, 1999, 2000).
27Laub, Nagin and Sampson (1998); Sampson and Laub (1993).
28Hirschi (1969).
29Hirschi (1969).
30Kanazawa (2000).
31Hargens, McCann, and Reskin (1978).
32Gould and Lewontin (1979).
33Ketelaar and Ellis (2000); Kurzban and Haselton (2006).
34Daly and Wilson (1996).
35Wilson, Daly, and Wright (1993); Wilson, Johnson, and Daly (1995).
36Wilson, Daly, and Wright (1993, p. 275, table 4).
37Wilson, Daly, and Wright (1993, p. 276, table 5).
38Kanazawa and Still (2000c, pp. 444–6).
39Buss (1988); Buss and Shackelford (1997); Peters, Shackelford, and Buss (2002).
40Wilson, Daly, and Wright (1993).
Chapter 7
[1]The only other American President ever to be impeached was Andrew Johnson, who was elected Vice President and became President after Abraham Lincoln’s assassination in 1865. As a result of the Watergate scandal, the House of Representatives began impeachment hearings against Richard M. Nixon in 1974. However, Nixon resigned in August 1974 before the full House had a chance to vote on the impeachment, the first (and so far the only) US President ever to resign.
2Betzig (1982, 1986, 1993, 2002).
3Betzig (1992, 1995).
4Kanazawa (2004c).
5Blau and Kahn (1992); Mueller, Kuruvilla, and Iverson (1994); Rosenfeld and Kalleberg (1990); Sørensen and Trappe (1995).
6Blau and Kahn (2000).
7Marini (1989).
8England (1992).
9Browne (1995, 1998, 2002).
10Campbell (1999, 2002).
11Kanazawa (2005b, p. 276, table 1).
12Kanazawa (2005b, p. 284).
13Moir and Jessel (1989, p. Chapter 8).
14Moir and Jessel (1989, p. Chapter 8).
15Kanazawa (2005b).
16Eitzen (1985, p. 378); Furchtgott-Roth and Stolba (1999, p. Chapter 1).
17Eitzen (1988, p. 385).
18Eitzen and Zinn (1991, p. 324).
19“Clinton Seeks More Money to Reduce Gap in Wages.” New York Times, January 31, 1999.
20Furchtgott-Roth and Stolba (1999).
21Kanazawa (2005b).
22Browne (2002).
23Baron-Cohen (1999, 2002, 2003); Baron-Cohen and Hammer (1997); Baron-Cohen, Lutchmaya, and Knickmeyer (2004).
24Baron-Cohen (2003, p. Introduction).
25Baron-Cohen (2003, p. Chapter 3).
26Baron-Cohen (2003, p. Introduction).
27Baron-Cohen (2003, pp. Chapter 1).
28Baron-Cohen (2003, p. Chapter 1).
29Baron-Cohen (2003, p. Chapter 3, figure 5; p. Chapter 4, figure 7).
30Baron-Cohen et al. (1997, 1998).
31Browne (1997, 2002, pp. 191–214; 2006).
32Franke (1995); Paludi (1996); Tangri, Burt, and Johnson (1982).
33Browne (1997).
34Clarke and Hatfield (1989).
35Buss and Schmitt (1993).
36Avner (1994); Bravo and Cassedy (1992).
37Browne (2002, p. Notes).
38Muehlenhard and Hollabaugh (1988).
39Muehlenhard and McCoy (1991).
40Mealey (1992, p. 397).
41Browne (1997, p. Chapter 3).
Chapter 8
1Kurzban, Tooby, and Cosmides (2001).
[2]Before we can explore the evolutionary origins of religion, we must first define our terms. The term religion, both in academic and general writing, tends to refer to three related yet separate things: religious beliefs (intraindividual cognitive processes inside the brain); religious practices (individual and interindividual social behavior, such as rituals); and religious organization (supraindividual collectivities, such as churches, synagogues, and other denominations). Psychologists mostly study religious beliefs (Allport 1950; James 1902), anthropologists usually focus on religious beliefs and practices (Durkheim 1915/1965; Evans-Pritchard 1956), and sociologists and economists tend to concentrate on religious practices and organizations (Greeley 1972; Iannaccone 1994).
In this section, we focus exclusively on the evolutionary psychological origins of religious beliefs. For this reason, we exclude from our discussion David Sloan Wilson’s excellent book Darwin’s Cathedral: Evolution, Religion, and the Nature of Society (2002), because it is mostly about religious organization and how different religious groups and societies evolved over history.
3Brown (1991).
4Bouchard et al. (1999); Koenig et al. (2005).
5Alper (2001); Hamer (2004); Newberg, D’Aquili, and Rause (2002).
[6]There have been a few studies that conclude that religious and spiritual people live longer than nonbelievers (Hall 2006; Miller and Thoresen 2003; McCullough et al. 2000). However, no one has yet either specified the proximate biochemical mechanism of how religiosity increases longevity or explained the ultimate reason why it does. These studies are also of limited credibility, since they are either funded by the John Templeton Foundation (Miller and Thoresen 2003; McCullough et al. 2000) or conducted by an Episcopal priest (Hall 2006).
7Kirkpatrick (2005, pp. 214–39).
8Atran (2002); Boyer (2001); Guthrie (1993); Kirkpatrick (2005).
[9]Once again, if you are familiar with elementary statistics, you recognize the false-positive and false-negative errors as “Type I” and “Type II” errors.
10Haselton and Nettle (2006).
11Guthrie (1993).
12Atran (2002).
[13]In other words, according to these theorists, religion is the result of humans attributing an intention to, and thereby employing theory of mind for, inanimate physical objects. McNamara (2001) suggests that autistics, who lack the theory of mind module, may thus be less likely to be religious than non-autistics. To the best of our knowledge, no one has compared the levels of religiosity among autistics and nonautistics.
14Haselton (2003); Haselton and Buss (2000).
[15]Haselton and Nettle (2006). The fact that Kirkpatrick’s theory of the evolution of religion has much to do with Haselton’s error management theory may not be entirely coincidental. Haselton was once a student of Kirkpatrick’s, although it was Haselton who originally introduced Kirkpatrick to evolutionary psychology (Kirkpatrick 2005, pp. x–xi).
[16]In Bangladesh, very slightly more men believe in God (98.7% vs. 98.5%) and identify themselves as religious (84.1% vs. 83.7%) than women. In the Dominican Republic, more men believe in God than women (95.2% vs. 90.9%), but the sample size is small (411 respondents). In Montenegro, more men believe in God (66.3% vs. 63.9%) and identify themselves as religious (50.9% vs. 47.9%) than women, but the sample size is even smaller (209 for the first question, 225 for the second).
17Miller and Stark (2002).
18Mol (1985); Suziedalis and Potvin (1981).
19Glock, Ringer, and Babbie (1
967); Walter and Davie (1998).
20Azzi and Ehrenberg (1975); Iannaccone (1990); Luckmann (1967); Martin (1967).
21Miller and Stark (2002).
22de Vaus and McAllister (1987); Steggarda (1993).
23Cornwall (1988); de Vaus (1984); Stark (1992).
24Haselton and Nettle (2006).
25Kanazawa and Still (2000c).
26Campbell (1995, 1999, 2002).
27Miller and Hoffmann (1995); Miller and Stark (2002); Stark (2002); Sherkat (2002).
28Miller (2000).
29Gambetta (2005, pp. 259–63).
30Kanazawa and Still (2000c).
[31]The top 20 most polygynous nations according to these scores are: 1. Anguilla, 1. Antigua and Barbuda, 1. Bahamas, 1. Barbados, 1. Equitorial Guinea, 1. Gabon, 1. Haiti, 1. Lesotho, 1. St. Vincent/Grenadines, 1. Swaziland (all of which have the maximum polygyny score of 3.000), 11. Morocco (2.9700), 12. Liberia (2.9000), 13. Nigeria (2.8175), 14. Congo (former Zaire) (2.8095), 15. Sierra Leone (2.8000), 16. Chad, 16. Nicaragua (both 2.7500), 18. Niger (2.7250), 19. Togo (2.6667), and 20. Mozambique (2.6664). Only Morocco and Nicaragua are outside of sub-Saharan Africa and the Ca rib bean.
32Atran (2003); Berrebi (2003).
33O’Hanlon and Campbell (2007).
34Kalyvas (2005, pp. 96–7).
35Coogan (1995, pp. 513–21).
36Atran (2003, p. 1538); Friedman (2002, pp. 144–5).
37Krueger and Maleckova (2003, p. 129).
38Friedman (2002, pp. 13–4, 19–20).
39Hechter (2000).
40Coleman (1988).
41Olson (1965).
42Kanazawa (2001a).
43Whitmeyer (1997).
44Dawkins (1976).
45Pinker (2002).
46Kurzban, Tooby, and Cosmides (2001).
47Miller (2000).
48Townsend and Levy (1990).
49Dunbar, Duncan, and Marriott (1997).
50Kanazawa (2000, 2003c); Miller (1998, 1999).
51Lycett and Dunbar (2000).
52Low (1979).
53Cunningham et al. (1995); Jones (1996); Jones and Hill (1993); Maret and Harling (1985); Morse and Gruzen (1976); Thakerar and Iwawaki (1979).
54Langlois et al. (1987); Samuels and Ewy (1985).
55Buss (1999, p. Chapter 6).
56Kanazawa (2000, 2003c).
57Dugatkin (1998).
58Grant and Green (1998).
59Höglund et al. (1995).
60Galef and White (1998).
61Dugatkin (2000).
[62]While an appealing idea, the only experimental test of this “wedding-ring effect” has not been supportive (Uller and Johansson 2003), so this must still be treated as an interesting but speculative idea.
63Kanazawa and Frerichs (2001).
64Kanazawa and Frerichs (2001, p. 327, table 2).
Conclusion
1Miller (2000, pp. 217–9).
2Hamer et al. (1993).
3Hamer and Copeland (1994, pp. 183–4).
4Trivers (personal communication).
5Camperio-Ciani, Corna, and Capiluppi (2004).
6Hamer and Copeland (1994, pp. 182–3); Miller (2000, pp. 217–9).
[7]Sulloway has had a truly maverick academic career. Having received a PhD in History of Science at Harvard and having been mentored by the great evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr, Sulloway has never held a regular academic appointment, and has instead supported himself and his scientific research entirely through research grants and fellowships, including a MacArthur Prize Fellowship (i.e., “the genius award”). He has written on the history of science, psychology, and evolutionary biology, and has conducted research at Harvard, MIT, the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford, and the University of California, Berkeley, where he is currently Visiting Scholar and Professor (Sulloway, personal communication).
[8]In 1960, Judith Rich Harris was a graduate student in psychology at Harvard. After receiving her master’s degree, she was dismissed from the program by the then acting department chair, George A. Miller, who thought Harris was not smart enough to earn a PhD. Thirty-five years later, while supporting herself by writing psychology textbooks, Harris worked on her group socialization theory of development and published it in the prestigious academic journal Psychological Review. In 1997, her article won an award from the American Psychological Association, the George A. Miller Award for an Outstanding Recent Article in General Psychology(Harris 1998, pp. xi–xviii).
9Sulloway (1996).
10Harris (1995, 1998).
11Rowe (1994).
12Harris (1998, pp. 365–78); Sulloway (2000).
13Kohler, Rodgers, and Christensen (1999); Rodgers, Kohler, Kyvik, and Christensen (2001); Rodgers et al. (2001).
14Daly and Wilson (1985).
[15]Daly and Wilson (1995). Probably the most common cause of mothers killing their biological children is mental illness. With its emphasis on universal human nature, however, evolutionary psychology is ill equipped to explain behavior caused by mental illness and other “abnormality.”
16Daly and Wilson (1988, pp. 37–93).
17Shields and Shields (1983); Thornhill and Palmer (2000).
18Yamaguchi and Ferguson (1995).
19Saad and Peng (2006).
20Kanazawa (2006c).
21Buss (1989).
22Schmitt (2003, 2004).
23Wright (1994, p. 84).
24Low, personal communication.
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Why Beautiful People Have More Daughters: From Dating, Shopping, and Praying to Going to War and Becoming a Billionaire–Two Evolutionary Psychologists Explain Why We Do What We Do Page 20
