31.Vladamir Estragon, Waiting for Dessert (New York: The Viking Press, 1982), p. 177. See also W. D. Snodgrass’s “The Boy Made of Meat: A Poem for Children,” which conveys the role of the dominant culture in enforcing meat eating, to the dismay of the protesting child. W. D. Snodgrass, Selected Poems: 1957–1987 (New York: Soho Press, 1987), p. 71.
32.Interview with Dr. Alan Long in Rynn Berry, Jr., The Vegetarians (Brookline, MA: Autumn Press, 1979), pp. 102–3.
33.Cited in Giehl, Vegetarianism: A Way of Life, p. 204.
34.Personal communication from Kathy Epling, Garbersville, CA, April 18, 1986.
35.Spender, pp. 164, 229.
36.Lynn Meyer, Paperback Thriller (New York: Random House, 1975), pp. 4–5.
37.Elaine Showalter, “Feminist Criticism in the Wilderness,” in The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature, and Theory, ed. Elaine Showalter (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), p. 262.
38.Zora Neale Hurston, Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937, Greenwich, CT: A Fawcett Premier Book, 1965), p. 51.
39.Mary Helen Washington, Invented Lives: Narratives of Black Women 1860–1960 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co., 1987), p. 237.
40.Hurston, p. 16. Hurston may have known of encounters such as the one Mary Church Terrell described in A Colored Woman in a White World: Terrell while traveling in the South was not always recognized as black. “ ‘So far as the nigger is concerned,’ one man told me, ‘he is like a mule. He is a good animal, so long as you keep him broken.’ ‘But the colored soldiers rendered great service to the Allies during the World War,’ I interjected. ‘And so did the mule,’ quickly retorted the speaker. ‘There is no animal in the world that did better service than the mule during the war. The mule is just like the nigger. He will do the work if you will furnish the brain’ ” (Washington, DC: Ransdell, Inc., 1940; New York: Arno Press, 1980), p. 325.
41.Lorraine Bethel, “ ‘This Infinity of Conscious Pain’: Zora Neale Hurston and the Black Female Literary Tradition,” in All the Women are White, All the Blacks are Men, But Some of Us Are Brave. Black Women’s Studies, ed. Gloria T. Hull, Patricia Bell Scott, and Barbara Smith (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1982), p. 182.
42.Washington, p. 253, n. 15. Hurston may have chosen the mule as the representative of both the oppression of black women and of the other animals because she knew that the “word mulatto itself etymologically is derived from the word mule and echoes the debate Americans engaged in about whether blacks were of the same species as whites.” Barbara Christian, Black Women Novelists: The Development of a Tradition, 1892–1976 (Westport, CT and London: Greenwood Press, 1980), p. 16.
43.Hurston, p. 51.
44.This passage appears to follow the pattern Washington describes: “Passages which are supposed to represent Janie’s interior consciousness begin by marking some internal change in Janie, then gradually or abruptly shift so that a male character takes Janie’s place as the subject of the discourse; at the conclusion of these passages, ostensibly devoted to the revelation of Janie’s interior life, the male voice predominates,” pp. 243–44.
45.Benedict de Spinoza, Ethic, iv. prop. 37 (trans. W. Hale White, 4th ed. 1910, 209). Quoted in Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: A History of the Modern Sensibility (New York: Pantheon Book, 1983), p. 298.
46.Brigid Brophy, “In Pursuit of a Fantasy,” in Animals, Men, and Morals, p. 130.
47.Audre Lorde, Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches (Trumansburg, NY: The Crossing Press, 1984), p. 41.
48.Nancy F. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1987), p. 15.
49.Vic Sussman, The Vegetarian Alternative: A Guide to a Healthful and Humane Diet (Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 1978), p. 2.
50.Isabel Giberne Sieveking, Memoir and Letters of Francis W. Newman (London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1909), p. 118.
51.Ellen G. White, Letter 72, Counsels on Diet and Foods (Takoma Park: Review and Herald Publishing Assoc, 1938, 1976), p. 396.
52.It has been argued that the placenta is another food produced by females while alive.
53.For the intersection between white racism and the failure to acknowledge the gynocentrism of many cultures see Paula Gunn Allen’s The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Tradition (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986).
54.E. B. White, Charlottes Web (New York: Harper & Row, 1952, 1973), pp. 78, 95.
55.Plutarch, “Of Eating of Flesh,” in Animal Rights and Human Obligations, ed. Tom Regan and Peter Singer (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1976), p. 111.
Chapter 4
Epigraphs: Ovid, Metamorphoses, trans. Rolfe Humphries (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1955, 1971), p. 367. The Poems of Emily Dickinson, ed. Thomas H. Johnson (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1951), poem 1651.
1.Teresa de Lauretis, Alice Doesn’t: Feminisim, Semiotics, Cinema (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984) pp. 8–9.
2.Dudley Giehl, Vegetarianism: A Way of Life (New York: Harper & Row, 1979); Vic Sussman, The Vegetarian Alternative: A Guide to a Healthful and Humane Diet (Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 1978); Keith Akers, A Vegetarian Sourcebook: The Nutrition, Ecology, and Ethics of a Natural Foods Diet (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1983).
3.Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: A History of the Modern Sensibility (New York: Pantheon, 1983), p. 297.
4.Aphra Behn, “On the Author of that excellent and learned Book, entitled, The Way to Health, long Life and Happiness,” in Thomas Tryon, The Way to Make All People Rich; or, Wisdoms Call to Temperence and Frugality . . . [sic] (London, 1685).
5.The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, ed. Leonard W. Labaree, Ralph L. Ketcham, Helen Boatfield, and Helene Fineman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964), p. 63.
6.Joseph Ritson, An Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food as a Moral Duty (London: Phillips, 1802), p. 201.
7.Bernard Mandeville, The Fable of the Bees; or, Private Vices, Publick Benefits (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1911), Remark p. 173.
8.James Turner, Reckoning with the Beast: Animals, Pain and Humanity in the Victorian Mind (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), p. 18.
9.Bertrand H. Bronson, Joseph Ritson: Scholar-at-Arms vol. 1 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1938), p. 34. To convey this he includes the entire Mandeville reference from Remark P in one of only two appendices to the biography, vol 2, pp. 743–48.
10.Quoted in Ritson, p. 225.
11.Frederick A. Pottle, Shelley and Browning: A Myth and Some Facts (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1965), p. 22.
12.Mohandas K. Gandhi, An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth (1927, 1929, Boston: Beacon Press, 1956, 1972), p. 48.
13.Quoted in Brigid Brophy, “The Way of no Flesh” in The Genius of Shaw, ed. Michael Holroyd (New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1979), p. 100.
14.Sheila Rowbotham, Women, Resistance and Revolution: A History of Women and Revolution in the Modern World (New York: Pantheon Books, 1972), p. 12.
15.Quoted in Brian Hill, “Vegetables and Distilled Water: William Lambe, M.D. (1765–1847),” Practitioner 194 (1965), p. 285.
16.William Cobbett, Journal of a Year’s Residence in the United States of America (1819, Gloucester: Alan Sutton, 1983), p. 202.
17.Harriot K. Hunt, Glances and Glimpses; or Fifty Years Social, Including Twenty Years Professional Life (Boston: John P. Jewett and Co., 1856, New York: Source Book Press, 1970), p. 140.
18.John Oswald, The Cry of Nature; or, an Appeal to Mercy and to Justice, on Behalf of the Persecuted Animals (London, 1791), p. i.
19.The Life of Thomas Holcroft Written by Himself Continued to the Time of His Death from his Diary Notes & Other Papers by William Hazlitt, ed. Elbridge Colby (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1928, 1968, 1980), vol. 2, pp. 127, 129.
20.George Borrow, Lavengro: The Scholar, the Gypsy, the Priest, ed. George F. Whicher (New York: The MacMillan Co
mpany, 1927), p. 197.
21.Paraphrase of comments made by Susanne Kappeler.
22.This incident and the following one are reported in Bronson, who viewed them as either exaggerated or apocryphal stories, vol. 1. p. 251, from J. G. Lockhart’s Life of Sir Walter Scott.
23.de Lauretis, Alice Doesn’t, p. 37.
24.Isabel Colegate, The Shooting Party (New York: The Viking Press, 1980, Avon Books, 1982), p. 94.
25.Alice B. Toklas, The Alice B. Toklas Cook Book (1954, Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1960), pp. 37–57.
26.Roland Barthes, “Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narratives,” Image-Music-Text, trans. Stephen Heath (New York: Hill and Wang, 1977), p. 79. Sexist language changed.
27.de Lauretis, p. 5.
Epigraph to part 2: Robert Graves, The Greek Myths: Volume 1 (Middlesex, England and Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1955, 1974), p. 46.
Chapter 5
Epigraph: Simone Weil, The Need for Roots: Prelude to a Declaration of Duties toward Mankind (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1952), pp. 224–25.
1.William Godwin, Fleetwood or, The New Man of Feeling (London, 1805, New York and London: Garland Publishing Inc., 1979), p. 177.
2.Bernard Shaw letter to Sidney Webb, October 18, 1898, in Bernard Shaw: Collected Letters 1898–1910, ed. Dan H. Laurence (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1972), p. 67.
3.See for instance, Lillian S. Robinson, “Treason Our Text: Feminist Challenges to the Literary Canon,” Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature (Spring 1983), pp. 83–98. The appearance of The Norton Anthology of Literature by Women, edited by Susan Gubar and Sandra Gilbert, by its attempts to re-member women’s texts implies the pre-existence of a dismembered canon. (New York and London: W. W. Norton and Co., 1985).
4.Barbara Smith, “Toward a Black Feminist Criticism,” in All the Women are White, All the Blacks are Men, But Some of Us Are Brave: Black Women’s Studies, ed. Gloria T. Hull, Patricia Bell Scott, and Barbara Smith (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1982), p. 161. See also Alice Walker, “One Child of One’s Own: A Meaningful Digression within the Work(s),” in Walker, In Search of Our Mother Gardens: Womanist Prose (San Diego, New York: Harvest/Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983), pp. 361–383. Deborah E. McDowell, “New Directions for Black Feminist Criticism,” Black American Literature Forum (Winter 1980), pp. 153–59.
5.Elizabeth Robins, Ancilla’s Share (1924, Westport, CT: Hyperion, 1976), pp. 94–95.
6.Lorraine Bethel, “ ‘This Infinity of Conscious Pain’: Zora Neale Hurston and the Black Female Literary Tradition,” in Hull, Scott and Smith, p. 177.
7.Caren Greenberg, “Reading Reading: Echo’s Abduction of Language,” in Women and Language in Literature and Society, ed. Sally McConnell-Ginet, Ruth Borker and Nelly Furman (New York: Praeger, 1980), p. 303. Further quotations are from pp. 306, 307.
8.H. S. V. Jones, “Joseph Ritson: A Romantic Antiquarian,” Sewanee Review Quarterly 22, no. 3 (July 1914), p. 348.
9.The Letters of Joseph Ritson, Esq. Edited chiefly from originals in the possession of his nephew. To which is prefixed a Memoir of the Author by Sir Harris Nicolas (London: William Pickering, 1833), p. 38.
10.Bertrand H. Bronson, Joseph Ritson: Scholar-at-Arms (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1938), vol. 2, p. 608.
11.See definition of anonymous in Cheris Kramarae and Paula A. Treichler, A Feminist Dictionary (Boston: Pandora Press, 1985), p. 53.
12.For background on the colonialist influence on writers such as Ritson see Critical Inquiry 12 (1985), which includes articles by Patrick Brantlinger, “Victorians and Africans: The Genealogy of the Myth of the Dark Continent,” (pp. 166–203) and Mary Louise Pratt, “Scratches on the Face of the Country; or, What Mr. Barrow Saw in the Land of the Bushmen,” (pp. 119–43).
13.Edinburgh Review 2 (April 1803): pp. 128ff; British Critic 22 (November 1803): pp. 483–89. Quoted in Bronson, vol. 1, pp. 280, 296.
14.Sidney Lee, “Joseph Ritson,” Dictionary of National Biography Volume 16, ed. Sir Leslie Stephen and Sir Sidney Lee (London: Oxford University Press), p. 1216.
15.Tom P. Cross, “Review of Joseph Ritson, A Critical Biography by Henry Alfred Burd,” Modern Philology 17 (1919–1920), pp. 234, 233.
16.Annette B. Hopkins, “Ritson’s Life of King Arthur,” PMLA 43 (March 1928), p. 251.
17.Cross, p. 233.
18.Included among these is “the literalization of a figure,” when an extended metaphor becomes translated into an actual event; the reference to the figure of the Virgin Mary who was the Mother of the Word; the representation of women characters who translate language, carry messages or who act as amaneunses, which Homans sees as “the thematic presentation of women carrying or bearing language itself;” and times when the text recalls the language of other authors, especially men. Margaret Homans, Bearing the Word: Language and Female Experience in Nineteenth-Century Women’s Writing (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1986), pp. 30–31.
19.See Alastor, line 101. English Romantic Writers, ed. David Perkins (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1967), p. 961.
20.Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus: The 1818 Text, ed. James Regier (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1974; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 202.
21.Iris Murdoch, The Good Apprentice (New York and Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1987). See Laura Huxley on “The Cooking Meta Toy,” in Between Heaven and Earth: Recipes for Living and Loving (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1975), pp. 141–61.
22.Helen Yglesias, The Saviors (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1987), p. 301. See for instance Helen and Scott Nearing, Living the Good Life: How to Live Sanely and Simply in a Troubled World (New York: Shocken Books, 1954, 1970) and Helen Nearing, Simple Food for the Good Life: An Alternative Cook Book (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1980).
23.Margaret Drabble, The Ice Age (New York and Scarborough, Ontario: New American Library, 1977), pp. 3–4.
24.Isabel Colegate, The Shooting Party (New York: The Viking Press, 1980, Avon Books, 1982), p. 30. Further substantive quotations are found on pp. 30, 111, 32.
25.Henry S. Salt, The Creed of Kinship (New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1935), p. viii.
26.Henry Salt, Animals’ Rights Considered in Relation to Social Progress (1892, Clarks Summit, PA: Society for Animal Rights, Inc., 1980), p. 5.
27.Heywood Broun, “The Passing of Shaw’s Mentor,” New Republic, 98 (May 3, 1939), p. 376.
28.Henry Salt, Seventy Years Among Savages (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1921), p. 64.
29.Besides sharing similar reform impulses, the fictional character and historical figure are linked in their private lives as well because Colegate draws on information about Salt’s marriage to describe Cardew’s. Salt’s wife, Kate, was the daughter of the Lower Master at Eton, the Reverend J. L. Joynes. She was an accomplished pianist and a feminist. (See George Hendrick, with the special assistance of John F. Pontin, Henry Salt, Humanitarian Reformer and Man of Letters [Urbana, Chicago, London: University of Illinois Press, 1977], p. 14.) Cardew’s wife Ada is the headmaster’s daughter, an accomplished pianist whose preferred cause was “Votes for Women.” Salt and his wife set up housekeeping in a cottage near Tilford after leaving Eton; Cardew lives with his wife in a cottage in the Surrey hills. Edward Carpenter made frequent visits to Tilford to play duets with Kate Salt. Later, with Carpenter’s urging, the Salts built a house near his residence in Millthorpe and they and Carpenter met daily. (Kate Salt was actually “hopelessly” in love with Carpenter. See Sheila Rowbotham and Jeffrey Weeks, Socialism and the New Life: The Personal and Sexual Politics of Edward Carpenter and Havelock Ellis [London: Pluto Press, 1977], pp. 77 and 97.) Cardew thinks about his friend, philosopher H. W. Brigginshaw, who often joins Ada in playing duets on the piano. Salt was close friends with Shaw and “wrote very often to Shaw.” (Stephen Winsten, Salt and His Circle [London: Hutchinson and Co., Ltd., 1951], p. 126.) Cardew imagines what he sha
ll put in a letter to Shaw. Kate was a lesbian. (She supposedly told her brother she was not interested in sex, or at least, we presume, heterosexual sex. Winsten, p. 71.) Ada preferred to keep “all that nonsense” [presumably sexual intercourse] “to a minimum.” Cardew is similar to Salt only up until the time when the shooting party is said to have occurred, 1913; after this time, Cardew’s life diverges from the pattern of Salt’s.
30.Colegate, pp. 32–33.
Chapter 6
Epigraph: John Oswald, The Cry of Nature; or, An Appeal to Mercy and to Justice, on Behalf of the Persecuted Animals (London, 1791), p. 44.
1.Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, Frankenstein or, The Modern Prometheus The 1818 Text, ed. James Rieger (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1974, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1982), “Preface,” p. x. Though I have chosen the 1818 version rather than the 1831 revision, according to Rieger’s collation of the texts of 1818 and 1831 in Appendix B, Shelley left the inner circle of the Monster’s narrative, where its vegetarianism is revealed, the least tampered section of the emended novel.
2.Like other feminist critics who have identified Frankenstein’s Creature as female and thus avoid the use of the masculine pronoun, I will use “it” to refer to the Creature. See for instance U. C. Knoepflmacher “Thoughts on the Aggression of Daughters”: “the Monster—purposely not called a ‘he’ in this discussion—initially displays feminine qualities” and “beneath the contorted visage of Frankenstein’s creature lurks a timorous yet determined female face.” The Endurance of Frankenstein, ed. George Levine and U. C. Knoepflmacher (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1979), pp. 106, 112.
3.Mary Midgley, Animals and Why They Matter (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984), pp. 22, 32.
4.Shelley, p. 142.
5.Henry Salt, The Humanities of Diet: Some Reasonings and Rhymings (Manchester: The Vegetarian Society, 1914).
6.John Frank Newton, The Return to Nature; or, A Defence of the Vegetable Regimen (London, 1811). Godwin may have known John Oswald as well, author of The Cry of Nature; or an Appeal to Mercy and to Justice, on Behalf of the Persecuted Animals (1791). Godwin was the acting editor for The Political Herald, and Review for which Oswald wrote. However, according to David Erdman, “Not only were the contributors’ names omitted or disguised by pseudonyms, as was the general custom; apparently the major contributors were also kept unacquainted with each other.” Commerce des lumières: John Oswald and the British in Paris, 1790–1793 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1986), p. 37. Erdman continues, “we must suppose that Oswald at this time was developing some acquaintances in publishing circles; possibly he and Godwin had met early on” (p. 42). For instance, Oswald and Mary Wollstonecraft shared the same publisher, Joseph Johnson.
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