Vicky Bowman moved heaven and earth to get me into the Rangoon Archives, while F. S. Aijazuddin performed a similar service in Lahore. Aijaz also told me about the magnificent and previously unpublished oil painting of Zafar in the Lahore Fort, and not once but three times got it down to have it photographed for the cover of this book.
Many others have helped with advice, scholarship or friendship and I would also like to thank the following by name:
In the UK: Charles Allen, Chris Bayly, Jonathan Bond, John Falconer, Emma Flatt, Christopher Hampton, Christopher Hibbert, Amin Jaffer, Eleanor O’Keefe, Rosie Llewellyn Jones, Jerry Losty, Avril Powell, Ralph Russell, Susan Stronge, Veronica Telfer, Philippa Vaughan and Brigid Waddams. Particular thanks are due to Mehra Dalton of the wonderful Greaves Travel, who flew me back and forth from London to Delhi; and to my brothers and parents in Scotland.
In the US: Indrani Chatterjee, Niall Ferguson, Glenn Horovitz, Navina Haidar, Ruby Lal, Barbara Metcalf, Elbrun Kimmelman, Tracey Jackson, Salman Rushdie, Sylvia Shorto and Stuart Cary Welch.
In India: Seema Alavi, Pablo Bartholemew, the late Mirza Farid Beg, Rana Behal, Gurcharan Das, Sundeep Dougal, John Fritz, Narayani Gupta, Ed Luce, the late Veena Kapoor, A. R. Khaleel, Jean-Marie Lafont, Swapna Liddle, Shireen Miller, Gail Minault, Samina Mishra, Harbans Mukhia, Veena Oldenberg, Pradip Krishen, George Michell, Aslam Parvez, Arundhati Roy, Kaushik Roy, Aradhana Seth, Faith Singh, Mala Singh, Manvender Singh and Pavan Varma. Stanley, Stella and Dougal did a wonderful job keeping us all in one piece at Dr Chopra’s Farm.
David Godwin fought incredibly hard (and ingeniously) to effect my move to Bloomsbury, and has been a wonderfully loyal and wise friend throughout. My different publishers have all been full of good advice – Alexandra Pringle, Nigel Newton and Trâm-Anh Doan at Bloomsbury; Sonny Mehta and Diana Tejerina at Knopf; Thomas Abraham, Ravi Singh, David Davidar and Hemali Sodhi at Penguin India; Paolo Zaninoni at Rizzoli; and Marc Parent at Buchet Chastel. Most of all I would like to thank Michael Fishwick, who has been my wise editor and generous friend for twenty years, first at HarperCollins and now, exactly two decades on from signing me up for In Xanadu, at Bloomsbury.
Writing a book puts pressure on the most patient of families, and I have been especially lucky with mine: not only did they all uproot themselves from homes and schools in London and move to Delhi while I researched this book, Sam and Adam also put up with the loss of bedtime stories while I was writing; and my gentle, beautiful and sweet-natured Olivia has been almost superhumanly sensitive and forbearing with her husband as he locked himself away from family life for six months and immersed himself instead in the inner courtyards of the Mughal court.
Particularly touching has been the interest taken in the whole project by my eleven-year-old daughter, Ibby. Having appointed herself editor-in-chief, she proved a surprisingly tough critic of her father’s tendency to use, as she puts it, ‘too many words’. This book – somewhat shorter than it would otherwise have been – is dedicated to her, with all my love.
GLOSSARY
Akhbars Newspapers or, before that, Indian court newsletters
Alam Standards used by Shi’as as focuses for their Muharram (qv) venerations. Usually tear-shaped (as illustrated in the text breaks of this book) or fashioned into the shape of a hand, they are stylised representations of the standards carried by Imam Hussain at the Battle of Kerbala in AD 680. Often highly ornate and beautiful objects, the best of them are among the greatest masterpieces of medieval Indian metal-work
Amir Nobleman, leader or wealthy individual
Arrack Indian absinthe
Arzee Persian petition
Ashur khana Mourning hall for use during Muharram (qv)
Avadh (or Oudh) Region of central North India, which in the early nineteenth century was ruled by the Nawab in Lucknow, until annexed by the British in 1856. Most of the sepoys in British service were drawn from this region
Avatar An incarnation
Azan The Muslim call to prayer
Badmash Rogue or ruffian
Baniya Moneylender
Banka Mughal gallant
Baradari A Mughal-style open pavilion with three arches on each side (lit. ‘twelve doors’)
Barakat Blessings
Barat Marriage procession taking a groom to his marriage
Barf Khana Ice house
Barqandaz Armed police constable
Bayat An oath of allegiance
Begum Indian Muslim noblewoman. A title of rank and respect: ‘Madam’
Betel Nut used as a mild narcotic in India, and eaten as paan (qv)
Bhands Buffoons, mummers or mimics
Bhang A traditional, mildly narcotic drink in which milk and spices are mixed with marijuana
Bhatta Extra allowance, given to the Company’s sepoys in time of war
Bhisti Water carrier
Bibi An Indian wife or mistress
Bibi ghar ‘Women’s house’ or zenana (qv)
Biryani Rice and meat dish
Brahmin The Hindu priestly caste and the top rung of the caste pyramid
Chamars Untouchables often of the sweeper caste
Char bagh A formal Mughal garden, named after its division into four (char) squares by a cross of runnels and fountains
Charpoy A rustic bedstead
Chain A domed kiosk supported on pillars, often used as a decorative feature to top turrets and minarets (lit. ‘umbrella’)
Chaukidar Guard or nightwatchman
Chobdars Ceremonial mace bearers
Choli Short (and at this period usually transparent) Indian bodice
Coss Mughal measurement of distance amounting to just over three miles
Dafadar Sepoy rank equivalent to petty officer
Daftar Office or, in the Nizam’s palace, chancellery
Damdama Mud fort
Danga Disturbance
Dak Post (sometimes spelt ‘dawke’ in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries)
Dak gharee Post carriage Dargah Sufi shrine
Darogah Officer, superintendent or overseer. In the seventeenth century the darogah was the chief executive of the royal household, but by the nineteenth century the term was used for middle – or lower-ranking officials overseeing police stations, bridges and individual departments within the royal household
Dastan-go Storyteller
Deorhi Courtyard house or haveli
Derzi Tailor
Dharamasaia Rest house
Dharma Duty, righteousness and hence, faith (for Hindus)
Dhobi Laundryman
Dhoolie (or doolie) Covered litter
Dhoti Loincloth
Din Faith (for Muslims)
Divan A collection of poetry by a single author
Diwan Prime minister, or the vizier in charge of administrative finance
Dubash Interpreter
Dupatta Shawl or scarf, usually worn with a salvar kemise (lit. ‘two leaves or widths’). Also known as a chunni
Durbar Court
Fakir Sufi holy man, dervish or wandering Muslim ascetic (lit. ‘poor’)
Fana Mystical self-annihilation or immersion in the beloved
Farzand Son
Fasad Riots
Fatiha The short opening chapter of the Koran, read at ceremonial occasions as an invocation
Fauj Army
Firangi Foreigner
Firman An order of the Emperor or Sultan in a written document
Fotadar Treasurer
Gali Lane
Ghadr Mutiny
Ghagra Indian skirt
Gharri (or gharry) Cart
Ghats River front, usually reached by steps built for the benefit of bathers and washermen
Ghazal Urdu or Persian love lyric
Ghazi Holy warrior or jihadi
Goras Whites
Hackery Bullock cart
Hakim Physician of traditional Greek/Islamic medicine
Hamam Turkish-style steam bath
Haram Forbi
dden
Harkara Runner, messenger, and in some contexts, news-writer or spy (lit. ‘all-do-er’), usually in Delhi in the employ of the Emperor
Havildar A sepoy non-commissioned officer corresponding to a sergeant
Hindustan Region of North India encompassing the modern Indian states of Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and some parts of Madhya Pradesh and Bihar, where Hindustani is spoken, and the area often referred to in modern Indian papers as the ‘Cow Belt’. While the term ‘India’ is relatively rarely used in nineteenth-century Urdu sources, there is a strong consciousness of the existence of Hindustan as a unit, with Delhi at its political centre. This was the area that was most seriously convulsed in 1857
Hle-yin A type of Burmese bullock cart
Holi The Hindu spring festival in which participants sprinkle red and yellow powder on one another
Howdah The seat carried on an elephant’s back. Often in this period a howdah was covered with a canopy
Htamien Silken Burmese skirt-wrap for a woman
Huqqa Waterpipe or hubble bubble
Hut Jao! Move away!
Id The two greatest Muslim festivals: Id ul-Fitr marks the end of Ramadan, while Id ul-Zuha commemorates the delivery of Isaac. To celebrate the latter a ram or goat is slaughtered, as on the original occasion recorded in both the Old Testament and the Koran
Iftar The evening meal to break the Ramadan fast
Imambara Shi’a religious hall
‘Ishq Love
Jagir Landed estate, granted for service rendered to the State and whose revenues could be treated as income by the jagirdar
Jali A latticed stone or wooden screen
Jang i-Azadi Freedom struggle (lit. ‘War of Freedom’)
Jashn Party or marriage feast
Jemadar Junior Indian officer
Jhil Lake, or swamp
Jihad Holy war, or struggle, hence jihadi, one who wages holy war
Juties Indian shoes
Kafir Infidel
Kakkar-wala Huqqa bearer
Karkhana Workshop or factory
Khadim Servant. In the case of a great mosque, the administrators or clergy
Khalifa Caliph, one of the titles claimed by the Mughal Emperor, though one more usually associated with the Ottoman Emperor, who inherited the title from the Abbasids
Khansaman In the eighteenth century the word meant butler. Today it more usually means cook
Khartum A junior wife or concubine
Kharita Sealed Mughal brocade bag used to send letters as an alternative to an envelope
Khidmatgar Servant or butler
Khüat Symbolic dress of honour, gifted by the Mughal to his vassals as a symbol of patronage
Kothi A substantial town house, often arranged around a succession of courtyards
Kotwal The police chief, chief magistrate or city administrator in a Mughal town
Kotwali The office of the Kotwal (qv), hence central police station
Kufr Infidelity
Kukhri Short, sharp, curved knife worn by the Gurkhas
Kurta Long Indian shirt
Laddu Milk-based sweet
Lakh One hundred thousand
Langar Free distribution of food during a religious festival
Lathi Truncheon or stick
Lota Water pot
Lungi Indian-type sarong, longer version of the dhoti (qv)
Madrasa Traditional Islamic college or place of education. In this period in Delhi, many Hindus also attended madaris (the correct plural for madrasas)
Mahajan Moneylender or banker
Mahal Lit. ‘palace’, but often used to refer to sleeping apartments or the zenana (qv) wing of a palace or residence
Mahi Maraatib The Mughal’s dynastic ceremonial fish standard. This came in two forms, one a single golden fish on a pole (as illustrated at the beginning of Chapter 1) and the other two golden fish hanging from a bow (as illustrated in the plate section)
Majlis Assembly, especially the gatherings during Muharram (qv)
Majzub Holy madman (or Qalandar)
Mansabdar A Mughal nobleman and office holder, whose rank was decided by the number of cavalry he would supply for battle – for example a mansabdar of 2,500 would be expected to provide 2,500 horsemen when the Nizam went to war
Marsiya Urdu or Persian lament or dirge for the martyrdom of Hussain, the grandson of the Prophet, sung in the ashur khana (qv) mourning halls during the festival of Muharram (qv)
Masnavi Persian or Urdu love lyric
Maula ‘My Lord’
Mazmun Theme (of a ghazal)
Mehfil An evening of courtly Mughal entertainment, normally including dancing, the recitation of poetry and the singing of ghazals (qv)
Mihrab The niche in a mosque pointing in the direction of Mecca
Mir The title ‘Mir’ given before a name usually signifies that the holder is a Sayyed (qv)
Mirza A prince or gentleman
Mohalla A distinct quarter of a Mughal city – i.e. a group of residential lanes, usually entered through a single gate, which would be locked at night
Mohur A gold coin of high value
Mufti An Islamic scholar who is an interpreter or expounder of Islamic Sharia law, and who is capable of issuing a fatwa or legal opinion
Muharram The great Shi’a Muslim festival commemorating the defeat and death of Imam Hussain, the Prophet’s grandson. Celebrated with particular gusto in Hyderabad and Lucknow, but also in the Delhi Red Fort
Mujtahid A cleric; one who does ijtehad, the interpretation of religious texts
Munshi Indian Private Secretary or language teacher
Murid Sufi pupil studying under a master, or pir (qv)
Murqana Stalactite-type decoration over mosque or palace gateway
Mushairas Poetic symposia where poets read their verses before an audience of connoisseurs
Musnud The low arrangement of cushions and bolsters which forms the throne of Indian rulers at this period
Nabob English corruption of the Hindustani nawab (qv), literally ‘deputy’, which was the title given by the Mughal emperors to their regional governors and viceroys. In England it became a term of abuse directed at returned ‘old Indian hands’
Namaz Prayers
Naqqar Khana Ceremonial drum house
Nasrani Christians
Nautch An Indian dance display
Nautch girl Professional dancer and courtesan
Nawab The term originally referred to a viceroy or governor, but later it was simply used as a grand title, usually for men, but occasionally – as in the case of Zinat Mahal – for women. Duke or Duchess would perhaps be the nearest English equivalent, which in its original Latin form Dux also meant governor
Nazr Symbolic gift given in Indian courts to a feudal superior
Nuqul Small hard sweets made of jaggery
Paan Mildly narcotic preparation of betel nut
Pachchisi Indian board game
Padshah Emperor
Pagri Turban
Palanquin Indian litter
Palki Palanquin or litter
Pardah Lit. ‘a curtain’, used to signify the concealment of women within the zenana (qv)
Parwana Written order, or edict
Pasoe A Burmese sarong
Peshkash Offering or present given by a subordinate to a superior. The term was used more specifically by the Marattas as the money paid to them by ‘subordinate’ powers such as the Nizam
Peshwaz Long, high-waisted gown
Phulwalon ki Sair The Flower Sellers Fair, held in Mehrauli during the monsoon rains
Pir Sufi master or holy man
Pirzada Official at a Sufi shrine, often a descendant of the founding saint
Puja Prayer (for Hindus)
Pukka Proper, correct
Pundit Brahmin
Punkah Fan
Purbias Easterners. In Delhi this word was used alternately with the term Tilangas (qv), to describe the rebel sepoys. Both words carr
y the same connotations of foreignness, implying ‘these outsiders from the East’
Puri Indian fried wholewheat flatbread
Qahwah Khana Coffee-house – the archetypal café of Hindustan prior to the introduction of tea in the late nineteenth century
Qasida Ode, usually a poem of praise to a patron
Qawwal A singer of qawwalis (qv)
Qawwalis Rousing hymns sung at Sufi shrines
Qila Fort
Qiladar Fort keeper
Qizilbash Name given to Saffavid soldiers (and later traders) due to the tall red cap worn under their turbans (lit. ‘redheads’)
Rakhi Band worn around the wrist as a sign of brotherhood, solidarity or protection
Ratjaga Night vigil before a marriage
Razai Quilt
Resident The East India Company’s ambassador to an Indian court. As time went on, and British power increased, Residents increasingly assumed the role of being regional governors, controlling the city and even the court administration to which they were sent
Risaldar Indian senior officer in a cavalry regiment
Roza Fast
Rozgar Employment
Rubakari An order
Sadr Amin Chief Muslim judge
Sahri The pre-fast meal eaten before dawn during Ramadan, the month of fasting
Saiatin Palace-born princes. In the Red Fort the salatin lived in their own quarter, frequently in some degree of genteel poverty
Sanyasi Hindu ascetic
Sarpeche Turban jewel or ornament
Sati The practice of widow-burning, or the burned widow herself
Sawar (sometimes anglicised to sowar) Cavalry trooper
Sawaree Elephant stables, and the whole establishment and paraphernalia related to the keeping of elephants
Sayyed (or Sayyida) A lineal descendant of the Prophet Mohammed. Sayyeds often have the title Mir (qv)
Sehra A wedding veil made of a string of pearls. Also a marriage ode or oration
The Last Mughal Page 55
