dox vs. unorthodox
Ginzberg, Lori, 149
Horn, Ernst, 48–53
Goddard, Lucy, 85, 114, 168, 246, 247
Hospitalism, 208
Goldstein, Linda Lehmann, 70
Hospitals: as acute-care facilities, 11, 178; as
Greeley, Horace, 89, 284 (n. 61)
middle-class institutions, 11, 178; as teaching Greene, Elizabeth, 115
institutions, 82–83, 138, 200; increase in
Gregory, Samuel, 155, 160, 166, 168, 200, 205,
numbers, 179. See also specific hospitals
233–34; and conflict with Zakrzewska, 98,
Howe, Julia Ward, 114, 168, 247
137, 140, 143–44, 152–54; and attack on
Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 20, 41, 78
man midwifery, 137, 144–46; on science,
Hunt, Harriot K., 85, 114; and political views,
137, 142, 143; on woman’s nature, 137, 147;
64, 66–67, 68, 75, 120; and friendship with
career of, 137–38; on microscopes, 140, 145,
Zakrzewska, 67, 86, 98, 100, 171
153–54; on thermometers, 140, 145; Letter to Hurd-Mead, Kate Campbell, 212, 301 (n. 91)
Ladies, 144, 146–47; Man-Midwifery Exposed Hydropathy. See Medical practice: orthodox
and Corrected, 144–46, 233; on women physi-vs. unorthodox
cians, 146–47; ‘‘Female Physicians’’ (article),
147
Immigrants: German, 54, 56–57, 88; as per-
Grimké, Angelina, 5, 64, 66, 75
cent of Boston’s population, 294 (n. 16), 295
Grimké, Sarah, 5, 64, 66, 75
(n. 25)
Gypsies, 22
Infection: theories of, 43–44, 208
Irregular medicine. See Medical practice:
Haeckel, Ernst, 242, 253
orthodox vs. unorthodox
Hahnemann, Samuel, 236, 303 (n. 17)
Hale, Edward E., 168
Jacobi, Abraham, 238
Hamilton, Alice, 222, 225, 227, 301–2 (n. 91)
Jacobi, Mary Putnam, 3; and orthodox medi-
Harvard Medical School, 66, 155, 202, 215,
cine, 61, 203; and gender di√erences, 94–95,
217, 222
151, 206; and promotion of science, 154; and
Heilbrun, Carolyn, 99
scientific research, 228, 239; on ovarioto-
Heinzen, Karl, 32, 88–90, 95, 113, 119, 136,
mies, 240; and scientific materialism, 244
158, 168; and friendship with Zakrzewska,
Jarvis, Edward, 173
8–9, 86, 98, 100, 101–2, 105, 118, 120; and
Jex-Blake, Sophia, 115, 211, 213, 221, 223
opposition to slavery, 8–9, 89, 107, 108; on
Johns Hopkins Medical School, 199, 202, 255
women’s rights, 8–9, 110–11; on religion,
89, 108–10; on Declaration of Indepen-
Kansas-Nebraska Act, 64, 106
dence, 106; on communism, 107–8; as athe-
Katz, Michael, 162
INDEX
332 ≤
Kirtland, Jared Potter, 70–71
Medical practice: orthodox vs. unorthodox,
Kissam, Richard, 87
12, 60–61
Kleindeutschland (‘‘Little Germany’’), 56–57, 62,
Medical profession, American: and attitudes
63, 98
toward German medicine, 4, 141, 173–74,
Koch, Robert, 236
229–30, 237; and opposition to women phy-
Kölliker, Albrecht von, 152
sicians, 71–72, 142–43; and attitudes toward French medicine, 141, 237; increased pres-Lachapelle, Marie Louise, 36, 37, 91, 146, 152,
tige of, 222–23
288 (n. 27)
Medical reforms
Ladenberg, Adalbert von, 23, 30
—American, 217, 222: failure of, 140; battles La Maternité (Paris), 83, 201
over, 215
Leavitt, Judith Walzer, 304 (n. 40)
—German, 4, 37, 38–41, 84, 140, 141, 238
Lehnert, Hermann, 51
Medical Reserve Corps of the Army, 257
Lincoln, Abraham, 106–7
Medical schools, U.S.: opposition to women
Lister, Joseph, 13, 208
students in, 59–60; orthodox vs. unortho-
Livermore, Mary, 168, 170, 247
dox, 60–62, 71, 155, 200–201; curriculum
Longshore, Hannah, 94, 125
of, 72–73, 217
Louis, Pierre, 234
Medical theory: French vs. German, 141–42
Lozier, Clemence, 180, 201
Medicine, image of: as masculine, 14, 142–43,
Ludmerer, Kenneth, 72
256
Lying-In Hospital Corporation, 187
Microscopy, 12, 13, 212. See also Gregory, Samuel: on microscopes; Zakrzewska, Marie—
Marx, Karl, 107
views: on microscopes
Massachusetts General Hospital, 159, 160,
Midwifery, German, 17, 24; reform of, 37, 39–
180, 202, 209, 297 (n. 10); and policy on
42. See also Schmidt, Joseph Hermann: and unwed mothers, 164; and patients’
education of midwives
nationality, 185; and patients’ class, 192–95
Midwives
Massachusetts Medical Society, 173, 174
—American: and tension with physicians, 95–
Massachusetts School Su√rage Association,
96
170
—European: training of, 83
Massachusetts Women’s Su√rage Association,
—German: and relationship to obstetricians,
10, 121, 170
39–40; protected by licensing, 40–41; clini-
May, Abby, 85, 114, 120, 138, 168, 170, 246
cal instruction of, 43–45
May, Frederick W. G., 168
Mill, Mrs. John Stuart, 123
Mayer, Carl, 40, 43, 75, 153
Moleschott, Jacob, 109, 156
Mayo, Amory Dwight, 65, 69, 73
Morantz-Sanchez, Regina, 3, 6, 205, 240, 263
McNutt, Sarah J., 210
(n. 17)
Meddlesome midwifery, 230–32. See also
Morton, Helen, 139, 201, 226
Gregory, Samuel: Man-Midwifery Exposed
Mosher, Eliza, 210
and Corrected
Mott, Valentine, 87
Medical education: coeducation vs. separate,
Mount Sinai Hospital (New York), 218
11–12, 70–71, 167, 170, 200–203, 218–19
Medical licensing: German, 25–26, 40–41;
New England Female Medical College, 2, 79,
weakness of American, 41, 96–97, 273 (n. 12)
89, 97–98, 136, 137–55, 156, 201, 202;
INDEX
≤ 333
reform of, 138; standards at, 144; criticisms
New York Infirmary for Women and Chil-
of, 154–55, 166; and closing of clinical
dren, 2, 75, 81–88, 98, 99, 136, 139, 156,
department, 155; and merger with Boston
180, 209, 210, 211, 218, 224; novelty of, 86–
University, 155; and requirements for
87; and clinical instruction, 87, 138
admission, 287 (n. 7)
New York Medical College and Hospital for
New England Hospital for Women and Chil-
Women, 180
dren, 2, 139, 155; as teaching hospital, 10–
Neymann, Clara, 105
11, 83, 209–13; as social welfare institution, Nightingale, Florence, 123
10–11, 157–58; and radical agenda, 10–11,
Nursery and Child’s Hospital (New York), 183
162–65, 181–86; and loss of radical agenda,
10–11, 186–9
7; as ‘‘feminist showplace,’’ 11,
Obstetrics: German, 38–41
186, 187, 190, 197; and orthodox medicine,
Ohio Female Medical Education Society, 67–
12, 200–202; and scientific medicine, 12,
68
203–13, 254–55; and clinical instruction, 12,
Orthodox medicine. See Medical practice:
210–12; founding of, 156–57; homelike
orthodox vs. unorthodox
character of, 159–61; compared with other
Ovariotomies, 240, 243
Boston institutions, 159–61, 205, 206; and
policy on unwed mothers, 164, 181, 196;
Parker, Theodor, 5, 64, 65, 66, 169
sta≈ng of, 165; as all-female institution, 167,
Parker, Willard, 87
170, 179–80; and board of directors, 168;
Parkman, Mary Jane, 85
and race, 170–71; and dispensary, 177, 179,
Pasteur, Louis, 13, 236
180–81, 185, 187, 188, 190, 195, 211; size of, Patients: as clinical material, 44–45
177, 179, 189, 190, 209–10, 223; and move to Penn Medical College, 138
Roxbury, 177, 189–91, 197–98; and admis-
Phillips, Wendell, 5, 64, 66, 135
sions policy, 181, 196; and cost of care, 187,
Physicians, women: image of, 3; strategies of,
191, 197; medical practice at, 193–94, 203–
3; on gender di√erences in styles of medical
9; and puerperal fever, 206–9; compared to practice, 3, 93–94, 151; on coeducation, 12;
a family, 213, 220, 225; and generational
on orthodox vs. unorthodox medical
tensions, 213–27; decline of, 227; as commu-
schools, 60–62, 200–201; and marriage,
nity center, 227–28; gender integration of,
102; and consequences of coeducation for,
227–28
255–56. See also specific women physicians
—patients: and marital status, 177, 178, 183–
Polish nobility, 19
84, 196; and class, 178, 180, 184–85, 189,
Pope, Augusta, 139
191, 192–95, 197; and race, 184; and
Pope, Emily, 139
nationality, 185, 188; compared with
Positionality, 6–7
patients at other hospitals, 185, 192–96, 294
Practitioners’ Society of Rochester, 297 (n. 9)
(n. 14)
Preston, Ann: and religion, 5, 154, 180, 280
New England Hospital Medical Society, 201
(n. 4), 291 (n. 35); and orthodox medicine,
New England Women’s Club, 9, 114, 121, 170,
12, 61, 203; and gender performance, 94,
247
206; and gender di√erences, 151
New England Women’s Su√rage Association,
Professional culture, 224–26
170
Professional identity, 40–41, 214–15, 237, 245.
New York Asylum for Lying-In Women: pol-
See also Zakrzewska, Marie: and profes-
icy on unwed mothers, 290 (n. 26)
sional identity
INDEX
334 ≤
Professions: and gender, 6, 151, 245
Separate education. See Medical education:
Prostitution, 23, 44–45, 57, 102, 130
coeducation vs. separate
Prussian civil service, 16; and salaries, 266
Severance, Caroline, 9, 72–73, 85, 117, 135,
(n. 23)
241, 249, 250, 254; political views of, 64–68,
Prussian General Legal Code (1794), 20
114, 120; supports Zakrzewska’s career, 67–
Puerperal fever, 43–44
68, 124, 129, 138, 168
Sewall, Lucy, 86, 171; and New England Hos-
Quakers, 84
pital, 103, 176, 179–80, 182, 201, 211, 226;
and letters from Zakrzewska, 113–14, 115,
Rational therapeutics, 141–42, 174
119, 120, 175, 220–21; as student at New
Regular medicine. See Medical practice:
England Female Medical College, 139; and
orthodox vs. unorthodox
relationship with Zakrzewska, 220–21;
Republican Party, 64, 106
death of, 241
Restelle, Madame, 81
Sewall, Samuel E., 103, 119, 168, 171–72
Revolutions of 1848, 4, 5, 28–31
Siegismundin, Justine, 91
Roxbury, 103
‘‘Situatedness,’’ 6–7, 258–59
Roxbury Women’s Su√rage League, 247
Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll, 100, 114–15
Rush, Benjamin, 141
Society for the Dissemination of Radical Prin-
Russell, Thomas, 168
ciples, 105
Sprague, Julia A., 253, 305 (n. 15); and rela-Same-sex relationships, 9, 99–100, 114–16. See tionship with Zakrzewska, 8–9, 86, 100,
also Boston marriages; Zakrzewska,
114–18, 254; and New England Women’s
Marie—views: on same-sex relationships
Club, 9, 114; as member of Zakrzewska’s
Sand, George, 123
family, 101–2, 113–14, 118, 120, 247–49; and
Sauer, Marie Elizabeth, 22
travels with Zakrzewska, 249–50; and reac-
Schmidt, Joseph Hermann, 35, 62, 129, 223;
tion to Zakrzewska’s death, 250–51; and
interest in Zakrzewska, 36–37, 46–51;
rejection of Zakrzewska’s atheism, 251,
career of, 37–38; restructuring of Prussian
253
medical system, 38–39; and legal rights of
Stahl, Catherine, 48, 49, 51–52
midwives, 39–41; and education of mid-
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 71–72, 135, 284
wives, 41–45; on puerperal fever, 43–44,
(n. 61)
207; on the position of head midwife,
Stephenson, John H., 168
46–47
Stone, Lucy, 81, 102, 168, 170
Science: as democratizing tool, 4; and moral-
Storer, Horatio, 167, 227
ity, 5, 6, 151–52, 229, 243–44, 258; and femi-
Swaddling women ( Wickelfrauen), 24–25, 39–
nist scholarship, 6, 15, 258–59; multiple
40, 52
meanings of, 13; as masculine activity, 15,
Sympathy, 3, 151
230. See also Gender: and science
‘‘Science has no sex’’: use of phrase, 7, 53, 120,
Thermometry, 211. See also Gregory, Samuel:
257, 259
on thermometers; Zakrzewska, Marie—
Scientific medicine, 13, 141–42, 199, 222, 226,
views: on thermometers
236–38, 254–55
Thompson, Mary, 154, 180
Semmelweis, Ignaz, 43, 207, 233
Thomsonianism. See Medical practice: ortho-
Seneca Falls Convention, 9, 66
dox vs. unorthodox
INDEX
≤ 335
University of Michigan Medical School, 198,
Women’s medical colleges: and standards,
201, 210, 217
154–55, 200–201, 217; closing of, 255
University of Pennsylvania, 155
Wright, Anna W., 115
University of Zurich, 7, 201, 202
Wunderlich, Carl, 142
Unorthodox medicine. See Medical practice:
orthodox vs. unorthodox
Zakrzewska, Anna, 21, 54, 55–58, 74, 80, 104
Zakrzewska, Marie: Polish ancestry of, 1, 18–
Vaughan family, 68
19; and meaning of her story for later gen-
Victorian ideal of women, 2,
8
erations, 1–2, 256–59; personality of, 2, 50–
Victorian moralism, 10, 157
51, 74, 86, 217–18; and German influence,
Vietor, Agnes, 9, 117, 256–57
3–5, 78, 95, 151–52, 237–38, 243–44, 259;
Virchow, Rudolf, 152, 208, 238
and background in midwifery, 4, 36–37,
Vogt, Karl, 109
46–53, 207, 233, 234; and gender perfor-
mance, 8, 51, 94, 95, 125, 126–27, 132, 143,
Walsh, Mary Roth, 11
253–54; and alternative family structure, 8–
Ware, John, 142–43, 147, 153, 173, 200, 215,
9, 101–2, 113, 118–20; radicalism of, 10, 84,
293 (n. 54)
98, 158, 162–65, 181, 185–86; bourgeois
Warner, John Harley, 237, 276 (n. 62)
values of, 11, 18, 45, 57–58; as materialist, Weld, William F., 168, 171
14, 111, 242, 244, 245, 251–52, 253; Gypsy
Wells, Susan, 33
ancestry of, 22; and professional identity, 39,
Wesley Memorial Hospital (Chicago), 218
40–41, 97, 214–15, 238–39, 246; and deci-
Western College of Homeopathic Medicine
sion to immigrate, 53–54; in New York City,
(Cleveland), 71
56–59; poor language skills of, 58, 63–64,
White, Ellen G., 128
73; and political education, 64–69; as athe-
Wissenschaft, 40, 41
ist, 65, 109, 111, 169, 243, 244, 245, 251, 253,
Woman’s and Children’s Hospital (San Fran-
278 (n. 22); and medical education, 72–73,
cisco), 180
78–79; and mother’s death, 73–74; and
Woman’s Hospital Medical College (Chicago),
New York Infirmary for Women and Chil-
79, 156, 180
dren, 74–75, 81–88; and purchase of home,
Woman’s Hospital of Philadelphia, 155, 180,
103; and father’s death, 103–4, 281 (n. 10);
206, 209, 211; and policy on unwed
and gender identity, 133–34, 143; and bat-
mothers, 164, 181; and race, 292 (n. 44)
tles with Samuel Gregory, 137, 140, 143–44;
Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania.
as hospital director, 181, 186, 200; and limits
See Female Medical College of Pennsylvania
of radicalism, 186, 187–90, 195–98; and
Woman’s Medical College of the New York
theory of disease, 189–90, 237–38; and style
Infirmary, 12, 79, 155
of practice, 203–6, 232–39, 241, 303 (n. 17);
Woman’s nature, 8, 121–22. See also Heinzen, and battles with interns, 213–27; and sister’s Karl: on woman’s nature; Zakrzewska,
death, 220; and withdrawal from hospital
Marie
a√airs, 226–27; as monist, 242; failing
Science Has No Sex Page 50
