Financial losses: Wagner, 44; Heberle, 165. The cobbler, Heberle, bought a house near Ulm for 740 florins in 1627, but sold it in 1636 for 300 florins in the depressed circumstances of the war. Property in the city was necessarily more valuable.
“God-given … goods”: Wagner, 46.
Seditious lines: Roeck (1989), I, 16; II, 748.
“merciless beatings” and “cut into pieces”: Wagner, 53, 55.
Cannibalism, quotes: Roeck (1989), I, 18.
The Löwenberg surrender terms: Ibid., II, 763–67; Wagner, 59–64.
CHAPTER 6. ARMIES: AMBULANT CITIES, DYING CITIES
Urban populations: Nicholas, 17–20, 69; Kamen (2005), 52.
French troops in Florence: Martines (2006), 43–48.
Charles V’s army: Tracy (2002), 197.
Spinola’s army near Mainz: Eckert, 55–56.
On Marlborough: Holmes (2008); Konstam; and on the famous march to the Danube: Weigley, 82–85.
Mrs. C. Davies (1743), 66–67; another expedition cited by Holmes (2008), 277–78. “We miserably plundered … his own price,” Daniel Defoe (1855), Roxana; or, The Fortunate Mistress: and The Life and Adventures of Mother Ross, New York.
Buckingham’s expedition: Stearns (1978); also, from the French side, Vaux de Foletier, 95–138.
Lavished £10,000, and dying soldiers, quotes: Manning, 116; Fissel, 263.
Alan Apsley, bear-pit leavings, quotes: Stearns (1978), 122, 123.
On “mouths”: G. Parker (2004), 79.
Tons of grain for bread: Fissel, 201.
Russian study: Perjés, 4–5.
Dutch provisioning train: Tallett, 256, note 106.
Siege of La Rochelle: details in Robbins, 210–14; Wood, 263, on provisions.
Ambroise Paré on Metz: Packard, 182–84.
Poles at Pskov: Frost, 62.
Alpine marching route and munitionnaires: G. Parker (2004), 70–90; Lynn (1997), 108–12.
English troops in Ireland, quotes: Gillespie, 169, 176.
Bread ration, calories: G. Parker (2004), 136; Smith, 39, note 10.
Calais retreat, quotes: C. S. L. Davies, 238–44.
German troops in Spain: Thompson (1976), 211.
Wagon and cart numbers: Delbruck (1990), 66; Tallett, 34; Creveld, 6.
Grandee dress, quote: González de León, 194.
Reflecting on ambulant cities: Perjés, 11.
Master craftsman’s wages: Lane/Mueller, 249–52.
Spring fairs in Italy: Covini (1998), 369–70.
Value “of a black galley slave”: Stradling, 241–42.
British army report: Smith, 45.
Raging Croatian soldier: Benecke (1978), 56.
Loads and feed for horses: Smith, 45.
Horses “died in large numbers”: González de León, 24.
Torstensson’s cavalry: Guthrie, II, 141.
“the lack of forage” and “the 30,000 men”: Lynn (1997), 129; (1993), 141–42.
Foraging parties of thousands: Hagendorf, 296–97.
Huguenot campaign, quote: Wood, 241–42.
War horses were walked: Covini (1998), 366.
Generally on camp following: Lynn (2008); Engelen; Hagemann/Pröve; Kroener/Pröve; Burschel (1994); Wilson (1996).
“When you recruit,” and Charles VIII’s declaration: Lynn (1997), 338, 337.
Women crossing the Channel: Tallett, 132.
Camp followers in Flanders Army and Thirty Years War: G. Parker (2004), 252; Burschel (1994), 226–58; Wilson (2009), 401; Kroener, in Bussmann/Schilling, I, 285–90.
After 1660, female companions and marriage in Prussian army: Engelen, 43–55, 88, with marriage rates up to 40 percent in Berlin’s regiments of the late eighteenth century.
On “the bishop of Albi”: Tallett, 133.
On sutlers: Grimmelshausen (1964a); Redlich (1954), 163–64.
Burschel claim: Burschel (1994), 10.
Of 220 sutlers: Mortimer (2002), 33, 108; also Benecke (1978), 34; and G. Parker (2004), 151.
Jews in Thirty Years War: M. S. Anderson (1988), 69–70.
Letter to Ferdinand III: Benecke (1978), 71–72.
The colonel’s words: Verdugo, 169.
Billeting in western Pomerania: Voss, 276.
Town of Vervien, billeting: Lynn (1997), 162.
The Russian saying: Hughes, 74.
French revolts: Bercé, 181–82, 192, 194.
Town of Sancoins, quote: Lynn (1997), 187.
Death rates: Tallett, 105; Hale, 119–20, 180.
Trapped soldiers and “vile” water: Schertlin, 25, who was in Naples.
August 1632, Gustavus Adolphus: Guthrie, II, 36.
Flanders Army, mutinies: G. Parker (2004), 253–56.
Charles V’s army at Metz: Prinzing, 21–22; Zinsser, 159, 265.
Louis XIII’s vanishing army: D. Parker, 11.
Army of sixty thousand decimated, quotes: G. Parker (2004), 177, 180.
Leicester’s words, deserters caught: Manning, 36.
Italian troops decimated: Hanlon, 76–77.
Recruits in Derry garrisons: McGurk, 247.
June to September, armies of Gustavus Adolphus and Wallenstein, quotes: Wilson (2009), 506; Guthrie I, 193; Zinsser, 159.
Battle of Lützen: Wilson (2009), 507–11; Mann, 650–63.
August 1664, quote: Wilson (1998), 43.
Maladies of the day: see Eckert; Outram; Prinzing; Zinsser.
Tracking the diseases, quotes: Outram, 175.
Simplicius, quote: Grimmelshausen (1964), 152.
The study of losses: Niccoli, in Anselmi/De Benedictis, 124–28.
CHAPTER 7. PLUNDER
The biggest haul: Tauss, 281–88; Fučiková, 173–79; Bussmann/Schilling, III, 405–11; Trevor-Roper; Frost, 134.
Stockholm palaces, quotation: Turner, 12.
Size of Swedish army: Guthrie, I, 163.
The authority on war booty: Redlich (1956).
Maximilian, art collection, quote: Mann, 620.
Heidelberg’s Palatine Library: Trevor-Roper, 23–26; Tauss, 281–83.
Augsburg’s goldsmiths, objects named: Müller, 263–64.
Imperial army on its way to Rome: Guicciardini; Hook (2004), 116–154; Pastor, 360–89; Pieri, 577–81.
The assault on Rome: Pastor, 390–422; Hook (2004), 162–77.
Plundered sums: Hook (2004), 180; Pastor, 413.
The quoted historian: Hook (2004), 171. The German officer, castle of Burtenbach: Schertlin, 30.
Venetian public revenue: Mallet/Hale, 131; Lane, 426. Quote, “gold-embroidered garments”: Pastor, 417.
On the numbers of victims: Schertlin, 19; Hook (2004), 178–80, says “thousands.”
Brescia, 1512, estimated value of loot: Contamine (2000), 179.
Battle of Bicocca: Pieri, 542–43; Mallett/Shaw, 143–44.
Split in Genoese ruling class: Foglietta, 652; Varese, 306–15.
Description of booty: Foglietta, 654.
“With shame … wealth distribution”: Ibid.
Customs house and bank of San Giorgio: Epstein, 314.
Sack of Mantua: Quazza (1926), II, 119–81; and (1933), 200–202; Mantova, 111–16; Malacarne, 70–77; Hanlon, 116–17; Mann, 478–81.
Plague deaths: Quazza (1926), II, 104–106; and (1933), 187–89; Malacarne, 68–70; Hanlon, 115.
Aldringen, the other generals, and Duke Vincenzo’s previous sale: Hanlon, 116; Trevor-Roper, 29–36.
The ghetto and quote: Quazza (1933), 202.
Estimated value of Mantuan loot and quote: Quazza (1933), 200.
Quote: “three times tax revenue” and royal share of silver, Hanlon, 116.
On soldiers’ partners and sale of booty: Malacarne, 75–76.
On McNeill and Goldthwaite: Caferro (2008), 190.
CHAPTER 8. HELL IN THE VILLAGES
Of May 1622, quote: Switzer, 66.
The Florentine saying: Martines (1963), 36.
The attack on Saint Nicolas-de-Po
rt, quotes: Gaber, 45–46.
Stephan Mayer, incidents, quotes: Sreenivasan, 280–81, 282, 286, 287.
Colmar’s immiseration: Wallace, 58–59, 173–75.
War came to Hesse-Kassel, quotes: Theibault (1995), 153, 157, 166.
Langenburg in Hohenlohe county, quotes: Robisheaux, 213.
Countess Anna Maria and quotes: Ibid., 216, 222.
For a detailed inventory of the diaries, see Krusenstjern (1997).
Benedictine diary, village of Erling, quotes: Friesenegger, 14.
April-May 1632, incidents, quotes: Ibid., 18–19.
July-November 1632, Croats, Imperial horsemen: Ibid., 20–22.
Swedes in grain chests, quote: Ibid., 26–27.
“War turns men into beasts”: Ibid., 89.
Late-December scene, quote: Ibid., 36.
Words of the Imperial colonels: Ibid., 39, 41.
January 1634, and later, quotes: Ibid., 44–45.
Plague strike, quotes: Ibid., 53, 54.
Wolves and mice, quotes: Ibid., 60, 63. Compare Helfferich (2009), 322; Theibault (1995), 157.
On “whores and boys”: Heberle, 119.
Bernhard of Saxe-Weimer in Weidenstetten, quotes: Ibid., 148.
Hohenlohe, production ratios, quote: Robisheaux, 154.
Quote, “cauldrons of boiling pitch”: Robbins, 211.
Turin’s burning of wounded soldiers: Symcox (2002), IV, 767.
The sick soldiers: Gräf (2000), 131.
CHAPTER 9. KILLING FOR GOD
On France’s Wars of Religion: Knecht (2002); Holt (2005). On Rouen: Le Parquier; Benedict (1981).
Quote, “warriors of God”: a turn rightly seized on by Crouzet.
The storming of Rouen: Le Parquier; looting, Benedict (1981), 97–102.
Holy war defined, quote: Birely (1988), 85–86.
On the Hussites: Kaminsky.
Ferdinand II’s vow: Hanlon, 93; iconoclasm, Arnade, 90–92; and Israel (1998), 148.
On Philip II: G. Parker (2004), 112–13; Lovett, 119ff., 155–58.
Antwerp’s thirty-eight thousand Protestants, quote: Israel, 219.
English mercenaries on Dutch side: Trim (2001), 49–50.
Armed friars and monks, quotes: Knecht (2000), 249.
Pierre de l’Estoile’s words: Roelker, 190,194.
On the two Jesuits: Birely (2003), 82–87.
Württemberg, and Catholic reactions to edict: Ibid., 91–93, 110–11.
Gustavus Adolphus, quote: Wilson (2009), 465.
Swedes dismantle Roman Church: New Cambridge Mod. Hist., IV, 330; Tilly, 135.
Muzio Vitelleschi: Birely (2003), 110–11.
Gustavus criticizes Magdeburg, quote: Roberts (1953–58), II, 498.
Magdeburg, quote, “chancellery of God”: Holborn (1959), 259.
CHAPTER 10. THE STATE: EMERGING LEVIATHAN
Except for the twist on banking in this chapter, my view of the emerging European state is not new. It is about “state building,” and the rudiments of this notion go back to the late nineteenth century, to Max Weber, Otto Hintze, and others. More recently, historians—e.g., Charles Tilly and Thomas Ertman—have tightened the argument by linking war and taxation more closely.
On the rise of bankers: Lane/Mueller (1985), 65ff.
Interest of 67.4 percent, charged by Genoese bankers in 1550s: Kirk, 31. On papal bankers, see Bullard, chaps. 5, 7.
Mary of Hungary and the 40 percent: Tracy (2002), 226.
The archbishop’s complaint: De Maddalena/Kellenbenz, 303.
Charles V’s debt: Tallett, 175.
Funding public debts: generally, Tracy (1995), I, 563–88. For Venice: Lane, 150–52. For Florence: Najemy, 139–44. Spain: Thompson (1994), 154; Lovett, 222; Gelabert, 206–09. France: Collins; Hoffman (1994a), 226–52; Bonney (1999), 123–76. The Imperial cities: Isenmann, 246. England: Brewer, 94–95, 137. The Dutch Republic: Hart (1993); De Jong, 133–52; Veenendaal, 96–139. Germany: articles by Krüger and Winnige, in Kroener/Pröve.
Spain, bankruptcies: Thompson (1994), 160; G. Parker (2004), 126–27; Lovett, 229.
Philip IV, his financial crisis, solution: Belenguer, 405–06; Boyajian, 154–59.
Of wholesale fraud: Boyajian, 159.
Fugger rights over mines: Pickl, 159–64.
Bardi and Peruzzi crash: Najemy, 133–34.
The financial fairs: Pezzolo/Tattara; Mandich, 123–51. Some students claim that debt was not rolled over at the fairs.
Heyday of the New Christians: Boyajian, xi.
War and rise of Medici: Martines (2003), 41–53; and (1988), 300–311.
On the rise of regular taxation, see the entries above regarding funding public debt; also Ertman, 70–71, 73–75, 240–47, on Spain, France, and Germany.
England and tax farming: Brewer, 65–66.
Of twenty thousand German and Swiss mercenaries: Ertman, 95; and unpaid troops, Mallett/Shaw, 279–86.
Debt of 100 million livres, then strain and bankruptcy: Wood, 283; Lynn (1997), 20–27.
Proprietary officeholders, numbers, 28 percent of revenue, and Spain: Ertman, 203, 119; Tallett, 186.
L. B. Alberti on merchant oligarchy: Martines (1963), 29.
French army numbers: Lynn (1997), 55.
Quote, “forced loans”: Ertman, 136.
Ballooning French debt in seventeenth century: Lynn (1997), 20–27; Hoffman (1994a), 237–45; Bonney (1999), 147; Rowlands, 111.
Revenue and debt: Lynn (1997), 25–27; Bonney, in Bonney (1999), 141–47.
Quote, tsar’s army: Keep, 91.
Quote, Swedish “war budget”: M. Roberts (2002), 123.
Germany, payments as late as nineteenth century: Krüger, 57; Wilson (2009), 805.
Saxony’s debt, Swedish army costs in 1649: Wilson (2009), 579, 771.
Dutch Union’s budget, quote: Hart (1993), 218.
Dutch war costs, debt, taxes: Hart (1993), 71, 164; Veenendaal, 123; Manning, 32–33, on complaints against the Dutch; Tracy (2008), 181–82, on Dutch miserliness with soldiers.
Kings were not absolute rulers: see P. Anderson; Collins; Henshall; Mackay.
Germany, Brandenburg: Clark, 34–43; Ertman, 246–54; Carsten, 187.
Quote, the “central financial administration”: Lynn (1997), 29. Corruption in French government: Rowlands, 135–49 and Parrott, 232–58.
Brandenburg’s commissaries: Ertman, 249–50.
Swedish military state, quote: Frost, 122.
Spain, subsidio and “crusade” money: Lovett, 230–34; Tracy (2002), 104.
On Jesuits: Birely (2003), ix–x, 28–30, 61, 64.
Sovereignty and Roman law: see Jane Black, 19ff., 37–38, 143–44, on the idea of plena potestas; and on sovereignty, Luard, 100–28.
Quote, Ius in armis est: Martines (1968), 380.
The “balance of power” principle: Luard, 1–25; as found in Alberico Gentile, Tuck, 18; and in diplomacy, M. S. Anderson (1993).
Peasants and tax collector, quote: New Cambridge Mod. Hist., IV, 492.
For early modern European reflection on the state: Tuck; Skinner; J. H. Franklin; and the essay by Arenilla.
Dynastic rights as “sacrosanct”: Bonney (1991), 80.
Jean Bodin: Skinner, II, 293–96.
AFTERWORD
On Louis XIV and the Palatinate: Lynn, 79–87, in Grimsley/Rogers.
APPENDIX. MONEY
Sources: Lane/Mueller; Denzel; W. A. Shaw; Spufford; McCusker; and Braudel/Spooner.
Bibliography
I have put a star in front of the English-language studies that, in my view, have made a significant contribution to the field. Example: *Geoffrey Parker, The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road. Without the works thus indicated, much in the tone and accents of this book would be different.
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