42. Vinson, Motoring Tourists, 21.
43. Marilyn Wyss, Roads to Romance: The Origins and Development of the Road and Trail System in Montana (Helena: Montana Department of Transportation, 1992), 24, 28.
44. Virginia Rishel, Wheels to Adventure: Bill Rishel’s Western Routes (Salt Lake City: Howe Bros., 1985), 37–38.
45. See Oral Bullard, Lancaster’s Road: The Historic Columbia River Scenic Highway (Beaverton, Ore.: TMS Book Service, 1982); Ronald J. Fahl, “S. C. Lancaster and the Columbia River Highway Engineer as Conservationist,” Oregon Historical Quarterly 74 (June 1973): 101–144.
46. Robert G. Athearn, The Mythic West in Twentieth Century America (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1986), 153; see also Warren James Belasco, Americans on the Road: From Autocamp to Motel, 1910–1945 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1979), 37.
47. Hal K. Rothman, Devil’s Bargains: Tourism in the Twentieth Century American West (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998), 153.
48. Athearn, Mythic West, 147.
49. The term “interstate highway system” was commonly used to refer to the federally funded highways built in the 1920s, as well as the later system of four-lane highways.
50. Federal Writers Project (WPA), South Dakota: A Guide to the State, 2nd ed., rev. M. Lisle Reese (New York: Hastings House, 1952), 187–188, 197, 239.
51. John R. Borchert, America’s Northern Heartland: An Economic and Historical Geography of the Upper Midwest (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), 74–76.
52. State Map of Montana, 1938.
53. Theodore E. Lang, “Bringing Montana out of the Mud,” Montana: The Magazine of Western History 44, no. 4 (Autumn 1994): 35.
54. Lewis and Clark Memorial Association (Lewiston, Idaho), Report of First Annual Meeting (October 30, 1929), RS 164, folder 4, MSHS archives, first three unnumbered pages (quotes are from pp. 2–3).
55. Ibid., 3–7.
56. Ibid., 11–12.
57. Lewiston (Idaho) Morning Tribune, September 3, 1933.
58. Lewis and Clark Memorial Association, Report, 3–7.
59. Neal Parsell, Major Fenn’s Country (Seattle: Pacific Northwest National Parks and Forests Association, n.d.), 21.
60. Space, Lolo Trail, 53.
61. Louis F. Hartig, Lochsa, the Story of a Ranger District and Its People in Clearwater National Forest, ed. Shirley Moore (Seattle: Pacific Northwest National Parks and Forests Association, 1981), 172.
62. Lolita Brown, Pioneer Profile: A Bicentennial Salute to Kamiah and the Upper Clearwater Region (Kamiah, Idaho: Clearwater Valley Publishing, 1976), 126.
63. space, Lolo Trail, 53.
64. Ralph Gray, “Following the Trail of Lewis and Clark,” National Geographic Magazine (June 1953): 707, 709.
65. Ibid., 714 (second quote), 731 (first quote).
66. Ibid., 738.
67. Ibid., 748.
68. Ibid., 746, 748.
69. Gerald S. Snyder, In the Footsteps of Lewis and Clark (National Geographic Society, 1970), 41, 116, 139.
70. The account that follows is from Wallace G. Lewis, “Building the Lewis-Clark Highway,” Idaho Yesterdays 43, no. 3 (Fall 1999): 13–23.
71. George W. Woolery, “A New Northwest Passage,” Westways 56, no. 5 (May 1964): 29.
CHAPTER 4: THE 1955 SESQUICENTENNIAL
1. “Review of The Far Horizons,” Time Magazine, June 6, 1955, 110.
2. The New York Times, May 21, 1955, 11.
3. Ibid., May 8, 1955; Northwest Lewis and Clark Sesquicentennial Committee Minutes, December 18, 1954, and undated committee report, 5–6, Lewis and Clark Trail Papers, Box 3, South Dakota State Historical Society archives (hereafter referred to as LC/SDSHS), Pierre.
4. Lancaster Pollard (superintendent of the Oregon Historical Society), “Lewis and Clark at Seaside,” report for Seaside, Oregon, Chamber of Commerce, n.d., VF 906, Washington State University Special Collections, Pullman.
5. Evening Budget (Astoria, Oregon), August 17, 1955. Lydia Large’s claim depended on the Wyoming theory that “Sacajawea” had lived to be an old woman and was buried on the reservation near Fort Washakie in that state. According to the certificate quoted in the news story, that lineage named Lydia’s father, Fred Large, as the “son of Maggie Basil Large Coy . . . daughter of Basil. . . son of the Otter woman, who was the sister of Sacajawea.”
6. Ibid., August 10, 1953, for a description of the Fort Clatsop vicinity.
7. Ibid., July 10 and 16, 1948, and January 25, 1955; Oregonian (Portland), May 31, 1955.
8. Evening Budget, July 12, 1955 (photo caption); Dedication program, Fort Clatsop National Memorial and Visitor Facilities, August 25, 1963, Astoria Heritage Museum/Clatsop County Historical Society; Richard Neuberger, Senate speech, July 12, 1955 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1955), VF 906, Washington State University Special Collections, Pullman. This replica of Fort Clatsop burned in 2005 and was reconstructed the following year during the Lewis and Clark Bicentennial.
9. James Stevens, Robert MacFarlane, and Kenn E. Johnston, Lewis and Clark: Our National Epic of Exploration (Tacoma: Northern Pacific Railway Co. and Washington State Historical Society, 1955).
10. Chapin D. Foster, letter to Ferris Weddle, May 19, 1955, LC/SDSHS.
11. Jules Loh, “Westward to the Sea,” Associated Press story in Lewiston (Idaho) Morning Tribune, September 19, 1971, Lewis and Clark VF, Asotin County Historical Society, Clarkston, Wash., no pages.
12. Letters, clippings, and state monument description in the Clark M. Maudlin Scrapbook, Three Forks, Montana, Public Library; Lyle K. Williams, Historically Speaking: Tales of the Men and Women Who Explored and Settled the Missouri River Headwaters (Three Forks, Mont.: pub. by author, n.d.), 54–56.
13. Maudlin Scrapbook.
14. David Glassberg, American Historical Pageantry: The Uses of Tradition in the Early Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 4, 148, 151, 231, 249.
15. MacKaye cited in Naima Prevots, American Pageantry: A Movement for Art and Democracy (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press, 1990), 1–2, 3 (second and third quotes), 72 (first quote).
16. Ibid., appendix A, 13, 15, 22–23.
17. Ibid., 121, quoting Frederick Henry Koch, The Dakota Playmakers, reprinted as a booklet from the Quarterly Journal of the University of North Dakota 9, no. 1 (October 1918): 15–16. The spelling can actually be found, attributed to the Bureau of Ethnology, in The Lewis and Clark Journal: Official Publication, 1904, LC/SDSHS.
18. Dillon (Montana) Daily Tribune, September 3, 1915.
19. Dick Riggs (president of the Nez Perce County Historical Society), commentary accompanying a photograph of the Lewis-Clark Hotel for the society’s 2004 calendar. Lewis and Clark VF, Nez Perce County Historical Society, Lewiston, Idaho.
20. Catherine Cocks, “The Chamber of Commerce’s Carnival: City Festivals and Urban Tourism in the U.S., 1890–1915,” in Being Elsewhere: Tourism, Consumer Culture, and Identity in Modern Europe and North America, ed. Shelley Baranowsky and Ellen Furlough (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001), 98.
21. David Lowenthal, in The Past Is a Foreign Country (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 295, refers to “a growing cult of authenticity” and “fanatical” attention to research that still characterizes many historical reenactors.
22. Albert Erickson, letter to Clark Maudlin, September 22, 1949, Clark Maudlin Scrapbook.
23. Bert Hansen, “Sociodrama in a Speech Communication Program,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 33, no. 2 (April 1947): 163, 165.
24. Carla Homstad, “Two Roads Diverged: A Look Back at the Montana Study,” Montana: The Magazine of Western History 53, no. 3 (Autumn 2003): 18.
25. Bert Hansen, “Tale of the Bitterroot: Sociodrama in a Small-Community Therapy Program,” repr. as a booklet from Sociatry 1, no. 1 (March 1947): 163–165.
26. Ibid., 93–94; Homstad, “Two Roads Diverged,” 24.
27. Hansen,
“Tale of the Bitterroot,” 94.
28. Homstad, “Two Roads Diverged,” 25.
29. Hansen, “Tale of the Bitterroot,” 95.
30. Homstad, “Two Roads Diverged,” 25.
31. Bert Hansen and Virginia Buttleman, Corridor of an Empire, Bert Hansen Papers, MSHS archives.
32. Ibid., Episode I, 1.
33. Ibid., Episode II, 1–4.
34. Ibid., Episode III, 7.
35. Ibid., Episode IV, 11.
36. Montana Standard (Butte-Anaconda), July 24, 1955.
37. Dillon (Montana) Daily Tribune, July 28 and August 1, 1955.
38. Dillon/Camp Fortunate pageant program, July 31, 1955, Beaver-head County Historical Society, Dillon, Mont.
39. Your Land Forever pageant program, K. Ross Toole Archives, Mansfield Library, University of Montana, Missoula.
40. The Salmon River Saga by Vio Mae Powell pageant program, August 20–21, 1955, VF 2609, Washington State University Special Collections, Pullman.
41. Salt Lake Tribune, August 29, 1955.
42. Lewiston (Idaho) Morning Tribune, July 9 and October 10, 1955.
43. Clearwater Progress (Kamiah, Idaho), October 7, 1955.
44. Montana Standard (Butte), June 17, 1955.
45. “Washington State Committee’s Speech Outline for the Sesquicen-tennial” (undated) and “Suggested Programs for Clubs and Organizations” (prep. Ruth M. Babcock; undated), both in VF 906, Washington State University Special Collections, Pullman.
46. Great Falls (Montana) Tribune, February 18, 1945.
47. The Magnuson measure was S.R. 88, 85th Congress, 1st Session (May 8, 1957); Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, The Lewis and Clark Trail: A Proposed National Historic Trail (Washington, D.C., 1975), 6.
48. Will Robinson to Chapin D. Foster, July 24, 1957, in LC/SDSHS.
CHAPTER 5: THE NATIONAL COMMISSION
1. Walter Nugent, Into the West: The Story of Its People (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999), 344.
2. Daniel B. Botkin, in Passage of Discovery (New York: Berkly/Perigee, 1999), 58–59, points out that agricultural pesticides such as DDT and Dieldrin may have contributed to major fish kills in the lower Missouri during the 1960s.
3. David L. Lendt, Ding: The Life of Jay Norwood Darling (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1979), 50, 70, 85, 154 (quote), 166.
4. U.S. Statutes at Large 88 (1964), 630, and 89 (1966), 475.
5. Lewis and Clark Trail Commission, Interim Report to Congress and the President, 1966, 6–7, SC 1961, MSHS.
6. Ibid.
7. Donald B. Alexander, “Tracking down a Heritage,” Parks and Recreation 1 (March 1966): 224.
8. Roy E. Appleman, “Lewis and Clark: The Route 160 Years After,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 57, no. 1 (January 1966): 10–12.
9. Ted Yates, “Since Lewis and Clark,” American West 2, no. 4 (Fall 1965): 24–25, 30.
10. Ibid., 23–26.
11. Ibid., 28.
12. Roy E. Appleman, Lewis and Clark: Historic Places Associated with Their Transcontinental Exploration, 1804–06 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. National Park Service, 1975), 261–262.
13. Wheeler, Trail of Lewis and Clark, vol. I, 88–89.
14. Ibid., xi–xiii, 51–53.
15. Lewis R. Freeman, “Trailing History down the Big Muddy,” National Geographic Magazine 54 (July 1928): 73, 77, 117 (quote).
16. Bismarck (North Dakota) Tribune, July 8, 1968.
17. Lewis and Clark Journal (newsletter) 2, no. 3 (1971), and 3, no. 4 (1972), LC/SDSHS.
18. Stanley Vestal, The Missouri (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1945), 11.
19. John E. Thorson, River of Promise, River of Peril: The Politics of Managing the Missouri River (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, ca. 1994), 64–67.
20. Ibid.
21. Vestal, The Missouri, 282.
22. Thorson, River of Promise, 15.
23. Michael L. Lawson, Dammed Indians: The Pick-Sloan Plan and the Missouri River Sioux, 1944–1980 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982), 27, 45.
24. Ibid., 27 (quote), 181–193.
25. Vine Deloria Jr., preface to ibid., xiv.
26. Botkin, Passage of Discovery, 38–39.
27. Appleman, Historic Places, 258–259.
28. Ibid., 260–261.
29. Lendt, Ding, 154.
30. U.S. Statutes at Large 88 (October 6, 1964), 630.
31. Great Falls (Montana) Tribune, May 26, 1964.
32. Will Robinson, letter to Curtis B. Mateer, July 19, 1967, and Keith G. Hay (Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior), memo, September 23, 1966, both in LC/SDSHS.
33. Lewis and Clark Trail Commission, Resolution of Portland Meeting (November 1968), LC/SDSHS.
34. Arlen Large, “Onward! Lewis and Clark Trail Commission Can’t Bring Itself to Quit,” Wall Street Journal, May 7, 1969.
35. Lawrence W. Lichty, letter to Sherry Fisher, July 2, 1968, LC/SDSHS.
36. Editorial in South Dakota Hiway Magazine 2, no. 9 (September 1927): 11.
37. South Dakota Department of Highways, Missouri River Perimeter Road System: Upper Big Bend and Oahe Reservoirs, Pierre to Northern Boundary of South Dakota (Mobridge, S.D.: Nance Engineering Study, 1965), 3, 9, SDSHS archives, Pierre.
38. Large, “Onward.”
39. North Dakota Lewis and Clark Trail Committee meeting minutes, March 14, 1975, Neff Papers, North Dakota State Historical Society archives, Bismarck.
40. North Dakota, State Outdoor Recreation Agency Digest 4, no. 5 (May 15, 1969): map.
41. Lewis and Clark Trail Commission, Interim Report, 9, 14–17.
42. Ibid., 9–10, 14–15.
43. Ibid., 16–17. Montana had already designated that segment of the Missouri River, as well as the stretch of the Yellowstone River from Yellowstone National Park to Pompey’s Pillar, as “state recreation waterways.”
44. Rothman, Devil’s Bargains, 155–156.
45. National Park Service Web site, www.np.gov/jeff/arch (accessed November 25, 2002).
46. Associated Press stories in the Missoula, Montana, Missoulian, Great Falls (Montana) Tribune, and Montana (Butte/Anaconda) Standard, May 16, 1968.
47. Boy Scouts of America, “Report on the Lewis and Clark Trail Project,” 1968, LC/SDSHS.
48. Archie Satterfield, “Park with Land Sculptures Proposed,” Seattle Times, January 28, 1968.
49. Astoria, Oregon, Daily Astorian, November 20, 1968.
50. Ibid., September 27, 1965.
51. Ibid., January 20, February 8, April 21, October 23, and November 9 and 17, 1967.
52. Ibid., October 23 (potential sites; second and third quotes) and November 9 (anticipated performances of the Lewis and Clark story) and 17 (first quote), 1967.
53. Ibid., December 4, 1967 (grant; 1968 summer production plans), March 29 (first quote), June 9 (second quote), and December 19, 1968 (release of the executive director).
54. Lewis and Clark Trail Commission, Final Report, October 1969, 3, 5–6, Lewis and Clark Trail Commission Records, MSHS, SC 1961.
55. Ibid., 7.
56. The National Trails System Act became Public Law 90-543 on October 2, 1968 (16 U.S. Code 1241).
57. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, The Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail, 3.
58. Lewis and Clark Trail Commission, Interim Report, 19.
59. Lewis and Clark Trail Commission, Final Report, 1, 3.
60. Omaha Register, May 7, 1969.
61. Large, “Onward.”
62. Letter to Life Magazine editor George P. Hunt, February 14, 1969; Clark Mollenkopf story in Des Moines (Iowa) Register, May 1, 1969; and Sherry Fisher, letter to Dayton Canaday, February 7, 1969, all in LC/SDSHS. (Fisher was responding to a squib in Life on February 7, 1969, entitled “A Hero among Bureaucrats” and retorted that the commission relied on very little public funding; the funding it did receive was used for travel.)
63. John Greens
lit, letter to Christopher D. Koss, August 11, 1969, LC/SDSHS.
64. St. Louis Post-Dispatch, October 12, 1969.
65. Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, “South Dakota Report,” presented at meeting in Helena, Montana, August 9, 1972, and Dayton Canaday, letter to Lester F. Faber (Bureau of Outdoor Recreation), March 29, 1974, both in LC/SDSHS.
66. Lewis and Clark Trail Commission, Final Report, 22–23.
67. St. Louis Post-Dispatch, February 9, 1968.
68. Editorial comment, We Proceeded On 1, no. 1 (Winter 1974–75): 9.
69. Bob Saindon wrote a thirty-two-page newspaper supplement entitled “Lewis and Clark in Northeast Montana” that accompanied the July 19, 1974, issue of the Glasgow Courier.
70. Montana Standard (Butte/Anaconda), February 6, 1970.
71. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, The Lewis and Clark Trail: A Potential Addition to the National Trails System, 1974, PAM 3263, MSHS, and The Lewis and Clark Trail: A Proposed National Historic Trail, 1975, 1, appendix B, 3, PAM 3262, MSHS.
72. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, Proposed National Historic Trail, 7 (first quote); appendix B, 2–3 (fifteenth quote), 73 (second through sixth quotes), 74 (seventh through fourteenth quotes).
73. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, Final Report to Congress, 45–46, House Document 277, vol. 13211-1 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1978).
74. U.S. Statutes at Large 95 (1978), 625.
75. Botkin, Passage of Discovery, 33–34, 64–65, 76, 104.
76. Archie Satterfield, The Lewis and Clark Trail (Harrisburg, Penn.: Stackpole Books, 1978).
77. Ibid., 162.
78. Ibid., 170, 174–175, 177 (quote).
79. Ibid., 181–182, 185–186 (quote).
80. Dayton Duncan, Out West: An American Journey (New York: Viking, 1987) x, 4–5. More recent guides include Julie Fanselow, The Traveler’s Guide to the Lewis & Clark Trail (Helena, Mont.: Falcon, 1994); Barbara Fifer and Vicky Soderberg, Along the Trail with Lewis and Clark (Great Falls: Montana Magazine, 1998).
CHAPTER 6: COMMEMORATION AND AUTHENTICITY ON THE TRAIL
1. Three Forks (Montana) Herald, May 19, 1980; Bozeman, Montana, Daily Chronicle, July 18, 1980, and July 27, 1981.
In the Footsteps of Lewis and Clark Page 20
