by David Pratt
Although the time of Bladefoot was over, it could be said that his spirit lived on in his descendant, the falcon. There were many things in this world that were reminiscent of the Late Cretaceous. The hunting falcon targeted the pigeons, just like the Troodon had targeted the Thescelosaurus. In the new skies, the aeroplane was just as big as the Quetzalcoatlus and in some cases made people stop and stare at its size. The pedestrians seemed like the hadrosaurs, being fearful of the street gang that could be compared to a pack of predatory Nanotyrannus. And like the Late Cretaceous, there was a lord and master. The cop car rolls up to the street gang who quickly disperse and it is a female police officer inside, showing her authority in the same way Thunder Blade the female Tyrannosaurus Rex asserted herself over smaller predators.
On Planet Earth the stories stay the same; only the players change. Human beings are unique amongst animals as they have a highly developed brain. They have learned about dinosaurs and tried to study their species and behaviours and even go as far as hypothesising what would have happened if not for that fateful meteor. Maybe human beings will, like the dinosaurs, disappear from this Earth, leaving behind only their legacy for the Planet’s successors.
The End
Appendix 1 – The Science behind Bladefoot
When I first began with the original idea of writing Bladefoot the main goal I wished to achieve was to make it as scientifically accurate as possible, without compromising on a good story. What I really wanted to do was make the reader feel that either he or she was actually walking through the Late Cretaceous Period sixty-five million years ago and really put the reader in the main character’s place. In order to do this, I had to research not just on the dinosaurs themselves, but also the environment, climate and the other life forms that existed at that time. The ideas in Bladefoot are based on the latest theories in palaeontology even if used in a fictional context. This first Appendix helps to explain what exact studies influenced particular concepts in Bladefoot.
Bringing up Baby Troodon
In 1979, a palaeontologist named Jack Horner from Princeton University (USA) discovered dozens of hadrosaur nesting sites in what is now Montana. The site was later dubbed ‘Egg Mountain’. What Horner also discovered was the nesting site of Troodons. Experts proved this by looking into the fossilised embryos of the eggs themselves. The scientists discovered that the parent Troodon had been bringing its young baby Orodromeus (a small plant eating dinosaur related to Thescelosaurus) to feed to its own babies. Some of the nests at Egg Mountain contained adult Troodon bones close to the nests, showing that the adults incubated their eggs in a similar fashion to modern birds.
Further study showed that the baby Troodons didn’t stay in the nest for long after hatching. Whether or not the adult Troodons cared for the babies themselves is unknown. But, scientists have proved that Troodon was the smartest dinosaur of its time, having the same mental capacity of an ostrich or emu. Based on this, I think it’s safe to say that the baby Troodons stayed with the adults for about a year as with modern ostriches, so the adults could better defend their young from predators. The high number of eggs in each nest showed a very predator rich environment. The more babies you have, the better chance that some will survive into adulthood.
Timescales and Distribution
To most dinosaur enthusiasts, Troodons evolved seventy-five million years ago and died out seventy million years ago. But latest fossils from Alaska found in 2008 showed that, in Alaska at least, Troodon had clung on there until sixty-five million years ago. I see no reason why an intelligent predator such as Troodon wouldn’t have survived in the rest of North America right up to the end of the Age of Dinosaurs, even if it wasn’t the dominant species.
I also believe that the sauropod Alamosaurus may also have migrated as far as Alberta, even if all of its fossils have been found in Mexico. From various sauropod track ways from other parts of the world, there is no reason to think that Alamosaurus may have migrated into Alberta. If animals of that size were to stay in one area for too long, they literally would’ve eaten themselves out of house and home, so migrating at least once a year was the only way.
T.Rex: Hunter or Scavenger?
Tyrannosaurus Rex was always assumed to be the terror of the Cretaceous. But this was not always the case. Palaeontologist Jack Horner proposed that T.Rex was actually a scavenger, comparing it to an over-grown vulture, while other palaeontologists such as Phillip Currie and Dale Russell maintained the idea of T.Rex being a predator. The simple answer to this debate was that T.Rex was both. Certainly T.Rex wouldn’t have passed up carrion, even using its sheer size to bully off other predators from a kill. But fossil evidence has shown that T.Rex was mainly an ambush predator. Indeed, the scene where Stan bites the tail of the Edmontosaurus was based on fossil evidence, as was the scene where Stan bit down onto the hip bone of the old male Triceratops. T.Rex didn’t run very fast but this was no issue as its prey was just as slow.
The Horned Dinosaurs
The ceratopsians had evolved a wide variety of frills and horns between the species. So what was all this head-gear used for, solely for defence against predators? That was the original theory, until Palaeontologist Scott Sampson reviewed this. He concluded that in some species, the horns and frills made up for poor defence. In some cases the frill itself is very thin and some horns faced downwards, or were very small. Sampson concluded based on modern animals, that the horns and frills were mainly used for species recognition and for males to compete for mates.
But let’s not right off the defence theory just yet because any predator would’ve certainly thought twice after being confronted against the swinging skull of Torosaurus or Triceratops. Indeed, Triceratops fossils are more numerous than that of T.Rex. In a fight between the two species, the reality was that Triceratops was the winner on a regular basis, being better armed and more widespread than its nemesis. From the fossil record, it appeared that the horned dinosaurs were experimenting with all kinds of designs.
Boneheads
Bonehead dinosaurs (Pachycephalosaurs) such as Stygimoloch were previously depicted with the males using their thick skulls for head on collisions as bighorn sheep do today. But further analysis by Mark Goodwin showed that the skulls of bonehead dinosaurs were not designed for head-on attacks, but still made effective battering rams. The proof was that there was no damage to the skulls themselves from such collisions and even if they did, they either would’ve cracked on impact or slid off one another. It’s still not sure if boneheads used their skulls for fighting within the species or for defence against predators. More than likely, it was both.
Death from the skies
For many years, how Quetzalcoatlus hunted and what it fed on was subject of much debate. Firstly, it was theorised that Quetzalcoatlus was a fish eater, soaring over the oceans snagging fish and squid from the surface. Then the idea came that Quetzalcoatlus was like a vulture, swooping down onto dinosaur carcasses. The latest evidence shows that Quetzalcoatlus hunted dinosaurs, but not by snatching them from the air. Track ways found in South Korea in 2004 showed that pterosaurs were very good walkers as well as flyers. They could even run, performing push-ups like the vampire bat to get them back into the air quickly again. Besides, the skeletal design showed that Sky Rider couldn’t catch dinner on the wing without grounding himself.
The T.Rex Hunter
Tyrannosaurus Rex wasn’t the only big predator in Late Cretaceous Alberta. An even bigger threat lurked beneath the water; the giant croc Deinosuchus. Despite being nicknamed ‘giant crocs’, Deinosuchus was more related to alligators. Their territories overlapped that of T.Rexes and it a fight between the two species, Deinosuchus could’ve had T.Rex for breakfast! Indeed Deinosuchus may have fed on sub adult T.Rexes and were more than a match for a fully grown female. It’s easy to imagine how Deinosuchus hunted by looking at modern Nile crocodiles hunting wildebeests today.
Nanotyrannus
For years it has been debated whether Nanotyr
annus is its own species or a juvenile T.Rex. Judging from key difference in the skull discovered by CAT scanning and each species having different numbers of teeth, many palaeontologists maintain that Nanotyrannus is unique enough from T.Rex.
In Bladefoot, Nanotyrannus was cast as the cunning, swift moving hunter, reminiscent of raptors from previous dinosaur themed stories.
A bone-bed found in Alberta from another species of tyrannosaur, Albertosaurus, showed skeletons of juveniles and adults. This may prove that Nanotyrannus was a social animal. Indeed, if one was to take on a herd of horned dinosaurs by itself that would’ve been suicide. But just because they lived together didn’t mean they were democratic. Studies found in a related species named Daspletosaurus that the pack members would’ve fought fiercely, even to the death, over feeding rights. The social structure wasn’t as developed as that of the Troodons, but still got the job done when bringing home dinner.
Dinosaur Noises
In some cases it is possible to know what sounds dinosaurs made. The best case was discovered within the hadrosaurs, or duckbilled dinosaurs. The crest of Parasaurolophus was long and hollow. It is believed that Parasaurolophus and its crested relatives snorted air through the nostrils and blew it back out again in loud, resonating calls that could be heard for miles. The sound itself would’ve been similar to an oboe, clarinet or trombone.
Edmontosaurus communicated in a different way. Its beak was much broader than Parasaurolophus and may have been covered by a flap of skin, inflating like a balloon when the Edmontosaurus breathed in. The sound produced when the Edmontosaurus exhaled may have been similar to modern frogs.
Were dinosaurs feathered?
It is now believed amongst palaeontologists that birds are the direct descendants of dinosaurs. This is why I showed both the Troodons and the Ornithomimus to be feathered. Recent fossil evidence found in China proved that many theropod species indeed sported feathers. Unlike the true birds, the feathered dinosaurs would’ve used their quills for insulation and for sexual display/dimorphisms, but some small species did manage to at least glide from tree to tree. Only the true birds achieved powered flight, which carried through to the twenty-first century.
What killed the dinosaurs?
One of science’s greatest mysteries is why did the dinosaurs die out? Many theories have been proposed from climate change, disease and even being hunted by aliens! However, the most commonly accepted theory is, sixty-five million years ago, a large asteroid the size of Mount Everest crashed into the Yucatan Peninsular in Mexico, which created turbulent environmental conditions and threw out a giant dust cloud which blotted out the sun and eradicated many ecosystems. The proof was a large impact crater that was discovered in the Yucatan Peninsular. Also, between the rocks that mark the end of the Cretaceous and the start of the Tertiary Period (the Age of Mammals) is a layer of iridium, a metal commonly found in meteorites. This means that there had to have been a meteor big enough to spread a vast amount of iridium around the world. Palaeontologists analysed the plant life and discovered a high extinction rate in plant species at the end of the Cretaceous, showing a mass environmental catastrophe.
However as one mystery is solved, another looms. How other animals survived is still a mystery.
Appendix 2 – Creatures Gallery
The Theropods (The flesh eating dinosaurs)
Tyrannosaurus Rex
Distribution: Canada and USA
Means: Tyrant Lizard King
Time Period: 68-65 million years ago
Size: 39 feet
Diet: Meat
Animal Type: Theropod (Tyrannosaurid) dinosaur
Nanotyrannus
Distribution: USA
Means: Dwarf Tyrant
Time Period: 68-65 million years ago
Size: 16 feet
Diet: Meat
Animal Type: Theropod (Tyrannosaurid) dinosaur
Troodon
Distribution: Alaska, Canada and USA
Means: Wounding Tooth
Time Period: 75-65 million years ago
Size: 6 ½ feet
Diet: Meat
Animal Type: Theropod (Troodont) dinosaur
Ornithomimus
Distribution: Canada and USA
Means: Bird Mimic
Time Period: 70-65 million years ago
Size: 16 feet
Diet: Omnivore
Animal Type: Theropod (Ornithomimid) dinosaur
The Ceratopsians (horned dinosaurs)
Torosaurus
Distribution: Canada and USA
Means: Perforated Lizard
Time Period: 68-65 million years ago
Size: 25 feet
Diet: Plants
Animal Type: Ceratopsian dinosaur
Triceratops
Distribution: Canada and USA
Means: Three Horned Face
Time Period: 68-65 million years ago
Size: 30 feet
Diet: Plants
Animal Type: Ceratopsian dinosaur
The Ornithopods
Parasaurolophus
Distribution: Canada and USA
Means: Almost Saurolophus
Time Period: 83-65 million years ago
Size: 33 feet
Diet: Plants
Animal Type: Hadrosaur (Lambeosaurine) dinosaur
Edmontosaurus
Distribution: Alaska, Canada and USA
Means: Edmonton Lizard
Time Period: 71-65 million years ago
Size: 43 feet
Diet: Plants
Animal Type: Hadrosaur (Hadrosaurine) dinosaur
Thescelosaurus
Distribution: Canada and USA
Means: Wonderful Lizard
Time Period: 68-65 million years ago
Size: 13 feet
Diet: Plants
Animal Type: Ornithopod dinosaur
Miscellaneous Herbivores
Alamosaurus
Distribution: USA
Means: Lizard from the Ojo Alamo Sandstone
Time Period: 68-65 million years ago
Size: 69 feet
Diet: Plants
Animal Type: Sauropod dinosaur
Stygimoloch
Distribution: USA
Means: Horned Devil from the River of Death
Time Period: 68-65 million years ago
Size: 10 feet
Diet: Plants
Animal Type: Pachycephalosaurid dinosaur
Edmontonia
Distribution: Alaska, Canada and USA
Means: From Edmonton
Time Period: 75-65 million years ago
Size: 23 feet
Diet: Plants
Animal Type: Nodosaurid dinosaur
Other Hunters
Deinosuchus
Distribution: USA
Means: Terrible crocodile
Time Period: 75-65 million years ago
Size: 39 feet
Diet: Meat
Animal Type: Crocodilian
Quetzalcoatlus
Distribution: USA
Means: From Quetzalcoatl
Time Period: 70-65 million years ago
Size 39 feet wingspan
Diet: Meat
Animal Type: Pterosaur
Didelphodon
Distribution: USA
Means: Opossum Tooth
Time Period: 71-65 million years ago
Size: 3 feet
Diet: Omnivore
Animal Type: Marsupial mammal
Sea Monsters
Mosasaurus
Distribution: USA, Japan, Europe, Middle East, New Zealand
Means: Lizard from the Meuse
Time Period: 70-65 million years ago
Size: 49 feet
Diet: Meat, fish, shellfish
Animal Type: Mosasaur (marine lizard)
Halisaurus
Distribution: The Americas, North Africa, Europe
Means: Sea Lizard
Time Period: 86-65 million
years ago
Size: 10-13 feet
Diet: Meat, fish, shellfish
Animal Type: Mosasaur (marine lizard)
Platecarpus
Distribution: USA, Africa, Europe, Australia
Means: Flat Wrist
Time Period: 86-65 million years ago
Size: 25 feet
Diet: Fish, Shellfish
Animal Type: Mosasaur (marine lizard)
Hesperornis
Distribution: USA, Canada
Means: Western Bird
Time Period: 80-65 million years ago
Size: 6 feet 6 inches long
Diet: Fish, Shellfish
Animal Type: Toothed bird
Archelon
Distribution: USA, Canada
Means: Large Turtle
Time period: 75-65 million years ago
Size: 15 feet
Diet: Jellyfish, shellfish, marine plants
Animal Type: Turtle
Pteranodon
Distribution: The Americas, Europe, Asia
Means: Toothless Wing
Time Period: 120-65 million years ago
Size: 26 feet wingspan
Diet: Fish
Animal Type: Pterosaur
Squalicorax
Distribution: The Americas, Europe, Asia, The Middle East, Australia
Means: Crow Shark
Time Period: 120-65 million years ago
Size: 16 ½ feet
Diet: Meat, fish
Animal Type: Shark
Bibliography
Barrett, Paul: Dinosaurs: A Natural History. Simon and & Schuster UK Ltd, 2002.
Benson, Roger (Dr): Prehistoric Life. Dorling Kindersley Ltd, 2009.
Dixon, Dougal: The World Encyclopaedia of Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Creatures. Lorenz Books, 2007.
Haines, Tim, Chambers, Paul: The Complete Guide to Prehistoric Life. BBC Books, 2005.
Haines, Tim: Walking with Dinosaurs. BBC Worldwide Ltd, 1999.
Lambert, David, Naish, Darren, Wyse, Elizabeth: Encyclopaedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Life. Dorling Kindersley Ltd, 2001.
