As the fog lifted, Howe claimed another victory in the Battle of Germantown. The Continentals lost 152 killed, 500 wounded, and 438 captured while inflicting 550 casualties on their adversaries. Afterward, Washington's command huddled in the Pennsylvania countryside to plan the next move.
Meanwhile, Burgoyne crawled along the Hudson River. Without the “eyes” of Indian scouts, he reached the west bank town of Saratoga by mid-September. South of town, Gates positioned 7,000 Continentals and militiamen on Bemis Heights. Thanks to Colonel Thaddeus Kosciuszko, a Polish engineer, the Americans erected three-sided breastworks of earth and logs that blocked the British path to Albany. On the left wing, Arnold urged Gates to order a reconnaissance in force before Burgoyne potentially seized the high ground to the west.
On September 19, the Battle of Saratoga began near a clearing in the woods called Freeman's Farm. That afternoon, a corps of 400 riflemen under Colonel Daniel Morgan fired several volleys that cut down the British lines. His sharpshooters worked their long-barreled, rifled weapons, which reputedly hit a target the size of a man's head at 250 yards. Communicating with turkey calls, they surged back and forth across the open space. With a passion for combat, Arnold led several charges from the southern fringe. The British retained the field but absorbed more casualties by dusk.
Burgoyne awaited relief from a diversionary attack by General Henry Clinton, Howe's subordinate in New York. Irrespective of British maneuvering, Gates not only remained a mile and a half away on Bemis Heights but also increased his forces to 11,000 men. Isolated at the river's edge, the redcoats faced daily sniping and harassment from patrols.
On October 7, the opposing forces renewed the Battle of Saratoga. Ignoring the counsel of his senior officers, Burgoyne probed the left flank of the defensive line. Gates relieved Arnold from command after a dispute but ordered other officers “to begin the game.” After mid-day, the Continentals hit the British at a wheat field near Freeman's Farm. Riding his mount between enemy redoubts, Arnold defied his commander by entering the fray. He shouted “victory or death” in the reckless assaults, although a bullet broke his thighbone. Commanding from the safety of Bemis Heights, Gates directed troops to hold the forward positions “at all hazards.” As heavy rains began to fall, Burgoyne retreated to Saratoga.
Finally, Burgoyne asked Gates for terms. On October 17, the former ordered his 5,800 men to surrender their arms. American losses totaled 90 dead and 240 wounded, while British casualties exceeded 1,000. Rather than seeing rebels swing from the gallows before winter, “Gentleman Johnny” raised his hat, bowed, and spoke humbly in the Saratoga Convention: “The fortune of war, General Gates, has made me your prisoner.”
The Alliance
As another winter approached, the Continentals grew discontented. American officers groused about the mismanagement of military affairs by Congress, especially in regard to the commissary and quartermaster systems. Senior staff approached Washington with a proposal for pensions and an order of knighthood, but the commander-in-chief doubted the feasibility.
With relations already testy, congressional support for Washington wavered over the winter. In the aftermath of the Saratoga victory, Gates violated his chain of command by corresponding directly with delegates. They created a Board of War to monitor the armed forces and appointed him president. Moreover, they elevated an Irish-born Frenchman named Thomas Conway to the post of inspector general. “Heaven has been determined to save your country, or a weak general and bad counselors would have ruined it,” remarked Conway in a letter to Gates.
Once the “Conway Cabal” came to his attention, Washington suspected a scheme to supplant him as commander-in-chief. He wrote to Congress, complaining that Conway's appointment “will give a fatal blow to the existence of the Army.” He sent a curt note to Gates, who denied knowledge of any conspiracy but stepped down from the Board of War. Conway resigned his commission and received a jaw wound in a duel with an American officer. After writing a letter of apology, the soldier of fortune returned to Europe.
Already fatigued from strenuous campaigning, long marches, and incessant backbiting, Washington camped with his soldiers at Valley Forge in Pennsylvania. The high ground of Mount Joy and Mount Misery combined with the Schuylkill River to make the military camp defensible from an attack. The area, however, offered little forage. Leaving a trail of bloody footprints in the snow, the ragtag troops suffered from insufficient food, clothing, and shelter. Most lived on a diet of “fire cakes” – flour mixed with water and baked in the coals or over a fire. Even the most steadfast reached a breaking point while chanting: “No bread, no soldier!” Thousands deserted or perished that winter.
On February 23, 1778, Washington welcomed the arrival of a former Prussian officer, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben. Never holding a rank higher than captain in Europe, he exaggerated his prior service under Frederick the Great. He attempted to “Europeanize” the enlisted personnel through drills and exercises in the valley. With a fondness for profanity, he demanded obedience, set high standards, and saved regiments from dissolution. Since Americans lacked handbooks for military conduct, he composed Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States (1779).
Meanwhile, Congress looked to the French government for assistance. Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee received instructions to press “for the immediate and explicit declaration of France in our favor, upon a suggestion that a reunion with Great Britain may be the consequence of delay.” King Louis XVI sent secret aid in the form of munitions and money, while Spain, a French ally, also donated provisions. Congress wanted an “alliance” not in the sense of a political union but in the form of military and commercial relations.
Negotiations with France proceeded slowly until Charles Gravier de Vergennes, the French Foreign Minister, learned of the American victory at Saratoga. France wanted not only to settle old scores against Great Britain but also to alter the balance of power in Europe. Franklin drafted a proposal for a Franco-American alliance, which resulted in the signing of two treaties in Paris on February 6, 1778. Pledging mutual trade, the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and France conferred international recognition upon the former. In addition, the Treaty of Alliance envisaged combined military efforts if the French went to war against the British. A few months later, Congress ratified the treaties with France.
That summer, France and Great Britain broke off diplomatic relations and confronted each other on the high seas. Spain and Holland soon challenged the Royal Navy as well, though not as American allies. Military operations spread to the Mediterranean, Africa, India, and the West Indies. The fighting overseas drained London's resources, deepened the government's debt, and threatened their colonial possessions. While reluctant to withdraw troops from North America, Prime Minister Lord Frederick North considered reconciliation. Plenipotentiaries led by the Earl of Carlisle offered to negotiate with Congress, but the delegates refused to retract the Declaration of Independence.
Committed to independence, Washington persevered through the highs and the lows. He sent 2,200 Continentals under Lafayette to reconnoiter near Barren Hill, only 11 miles west of Philadelphia. On May 20, 1778, they bypassed 5,000 redcoats while maneuvering and skirmishing. Howe sailed for Great Britain a few days later, when Clinton took command of the Royal Army. Evacuating Philadelphia, he marched 10,000 soldiers eastward across New Jersey toward New York City. His supply train sprawled for a dozen miles along the road.
While sending a detachment under Arnold to secure Philadelphia, Washington chased Clinton with 10,000 Continentals. Lafayette and Steuben urged him to strike a vulnerable enemy on the move. Recently released from British captivity, Lee recommended that he avoid the risk of an engagement. Washington gave him command of the vanguard in New Jersey, ordering an attack near Monmouth Court House. At dawn on June 28, Lee hit the rear and left flank of Clinton. His attack seemed confused and halfhearted, which raised doubts about his devotio
n to the American side. Whatever his intention, he signaled a full retreat as soon as the British began firing. With 5,000 Continentals in flight, he reformed them on a ridge fronted by a morass.
Temperatures soared to 100 degrees, as Washington rode to the ridge. He demanded that Lee explain the disposition of his troops. After a heated exchange about further engagement, the commander-in-chief swore: “Sir, they are able and, by God, they shall do it!” The British launched a series of headlong charges against the high ground, where the Continentals stood firm. The fighting featured artillery, while the opposing forces maneuvered with speed and precision under thick gunfire. By sunset, Clinton ordered his troops to pull back to a ravine. For the Americans, the Battle of Monmouth resulted in 106 killed, 161 wounded, and 95 missing in action. British forces resumed their march eastward, which allowed Washington to claim victory. Later, Lee was court-martialed and resigned from service in the Continental Army.
The Continentals proceeded across the Hudson to White Plains, while French Admiral Charles Hector Théodat Count d'Estaing arrived with a dozen ships near Sandy Hook. Raiding and foraging punctuated land-based operations for the rest of the year, thereby containing the British within New York City and Newport. Eventually, they evacuated the latter to reinforce the former. While disappointed that d'Estaing decided to sail for the West Indies, Washington's command quartered at Middlebrook that winter.
Even though the French barely challenged the blockade of the Atlantic seaboard, the Americans sustained a “cruising war” against the Royal Navy. Congress and the states commissioned more than 2,000 privateers, whose captains carried letters of marque and reprisal to collect prizes for capturing vessels. According to British records, they seized thousands of merchant ships at sea. Avoiding warships, Thomas Truxtun commanded the privateers Independence, Mars, and St. James on several excursions. However, many found that their acts of piracy landed them in British prisons. With maritime commerce in the doldrums, the lure of booty induced more than 11,000 Americans to serve on board privateers.
Although fewer Americans served in the Continental Navy, the men-of-war captured 196 ships flying the enemy flag. Captain Gustavus Conyngham commanded the Charming Peggy, the Surprise, and the Revenge, even circumnavigating the British Isles while taking prizes. Once opened to allied ships, the French ports invited the Continentals to strike their prey closer to British shores.
No Continental achieved greater acclaim on the high seas than Captain John Paul Jones, who famously preyed upon British commerce aboard the Ranger. During 1778, he captured seven British ships and raided the English harbor of Whitehaven. In Quiberon Bay, he earned the distinction of commanding the first armed vessel flying the American flag to receive a foreign salute. The French also provided the courageous captain with the Duc de Duras, which he refitted and renamed the Bonhomme Richard in honor of Benjamin Franklin. On September 23, 1779, the Bonhomme Richard confronted a British frigate, H.M.S. Serapis, in a memorable clash. Asked by his opponent to surrender, Jones reportedly barked: “I have not yet begun to fight!” He captured the prize, although his own warship sank two days later.
Figure 2.3 Jean-Michel Moreau, John Paul Jones, 1781. Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress
Despite the heroic efforts of seamen, the Royal Navy continued to rule the oceans. While arms, ammunition, and supplies began trickling into North America, the French fleet focused upon the sugar islands of Grenada, St. Vincent, and Dominica. The Franco-American alliance widened the war without compelling the British to end it.
Outside the Lines
Continental soldiers and sailors fought long and hard for home rule, but they depended upon civilians to maintain their resilience. Though Congress returned to Philadelphia in 1778, delegates resigned all too often or skipped controversial votes. With rampant inflation spiraling out of control and paper currency plunging in value, the phrase “not worth a Continental” entered American discourse. Financial turmoil disrupted the flow of goods throughout the country. Patriots as well as loyalists grew war weary.
The war effort elevated the status of “respectable ladies” on the home front. Women organized volunteer aid societies to manage fundraising drives for veterans and widows. Many wrote letters, penned essays, collected scrap, and knitted stockings. Scores managed farms, plantations, and shops in the absence of fathers and husbands. Others engaged in the production of homespun textiles through piece work, while a few toiled in the munitions industry. Borrowing from an Irish folk tune, an anonymous songwriter composed a sorrowful lyric to note her wartime sacrifices: “I'll sell my rod / I'll sell my reel / Likewise, I'll sell my spinning wheel / And buy my love a sword of steel / Johnny has gone for a soldier.” Hence, the prolonged struggle broke down social barriers that insulated females from military affairs.
In highly visible ways, women joined the armed forces as camp followers. In total, approximately 20,000 traveled with the Continental Army during wartime. Accompanying spouses, lovers, and relatives, they performed essential tasks such as cooking, cleaning, laundering, nursing, and entertaining. Mary Ludwig Hays, who was also known as Molly Pitcher, took her husband's place sponging, loading, and firing an artillery field-piece. Prostitutes plied their trade around encampments, although the “Yankees” seldom possessed enough money to pay for sex. Some drifted from camp to camp in pursuit of income or happiness. A number served as spies, scouts, and couriers. Even if they appeared destitute, women on the official rosters usually received half-rations in return for their service.
Several accounts tell of women wearing uniforms while passing as men. Deborah Sampson, for instance, enlisted on May 20, 1782, in the Fourth Massachusetts Regiment under the alias Robert Shurtliff. However, she was discharged from service the next year. Without medical examinations for enlistment, cross-dressing permitted deception about gender identification from time to time.
Enlistment shortages necessitated the alteration of the force composition. Alarmed by waning manpower over the years, Congress turned the Continentals into a standing army for hire. The delegates increased the bounties, bonuses, pay, and benefits to entice volunteers, eventually promising those who would serve for the war's duration at least 100 acres of land. Recruiters frequently targeted a landless pool that included transients, immigrants, debtors, laborers, and servants. United by their poverty, the “lower sort” bonded with others willing and able to show deference toward line officers. Service in the armed forces opened a path for upward mobility or outright freedom, that is, if independence was won.
Attracted by the opportunity to earn a livelihood, the number of free blacks among the rank and file increased. About 5,000 African Americans served in the Continental Army, although as many as 50,000 former slaves fled to British lines. Aside from Georgia and South Carolina, state governments usually permitted chattel to make their mark. Most served with mixed companies, while a few volunteered for segregated regiments such as the “Bucks of America.” Jehu Grant, a black soldier from Rhode Island, recalled hearing “those songs of liberty that saluted my ears and thrilled through my heart.”
Instead of liberty, the American Revolution brought disease, hunger, dislocation, and division to many Indian nations. American settlers in the backcountry threatened indigenous communities, although most chiefs professed neutrality. Nevertheless, British officers increased their practice of doling out gifts to tribal leaders to a much greater extent than Congress could afford. Led by the Mohawk Joseph Brant, the six nations of the Iroquois raided scattered settlements in Pennsylvania and in New York throughout 1778.
The next year, Congress ordered a military “chastisement” of the Iroquois. General Sullivan marched 2,500 Continentals westward along with 1,500 New York militia under General James Clinton. The Sullivan–Clinton expedition that summer destroyed villages and crops in the valleys. Armed by the British, Iroquois raiding parties retaliated against the American settlements the following season. The cycle of violence continued unabated, which devasta
ted Indian people from the Chemung River to Seneca Lake.
Elsewhere, the Virginians claimed the homelands of Indian people as far west as the Mississippi River. A 26-year-old lieutenant colonel in the Virginia militia named George Rogers Clark vowed to secure the remote territory in 1778. He led 175 volunteers down the Ohio River and seized several French-inhabited towns. Eager to fight the British and their Indian allies, they conducted an 18-day trek through icy rivers to reach Fort Sackville in Vincennes.
Clark's men arrived after twilight on February 23, 1779, which became known as the “night of the long knives.” With their faces painted like Indian warriors, they surrounded the garrison at Fort Sackville. They taunted Lieutenant Colonel Henry Hamilton, the British commander, who earned the sobriquet “hair buyer” for his purchases of American scalps. To unnerve the redcoats, Clark tomahawked Indian captives in full view of the commander before tossing them into the river. Shocked and awed, Hamilton agreed to terms of surrender and became a prisoner of war. Although the “long knives” erected Fort Nelson and Fort Jefferson in the interior while waging war on the Indians, the British retained their hold on Fort Detroit.
The British denounced the Americans for their treachery, even if conventional rules of warfare usually governed the treatment of military personnel. American leaders insisted upon the sovereignty of the United States, thereby defining the clash of arms as a war between nations. Their own seditious acts notwithstanding, Congress targeted spies and traitors with strict measures that imposed harsh punishments in wartime.
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