23. Quoted in McCardell, Ill-Starred General, p. 185.
24. Quoted in ibid., p. 184.
25. Braddockto Napier, June 8, 1755, Pargellis, Military Affairs, pp. 84—92.
26. James R. Tootle, "Anglo-Indian Relations in the Northern Theater of the French and Indian War, 1748-1761," Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, p. 253; PCR, 6:397, 589.
27. Braddockto Napier, June 8, 1755, Pargellis, Military Affairs, p. 85.
28. Ibid., p. 92.
29. Washington to John Augustine Washington, June 28, 1755, Abbot, Papers of George Washington, 1:323.
30. Ibid., 1:322.
4. French Victory, English Defeat
Epigraph. Quoted in Julian S. Corbett, England in the Seven Years War, 2 vols. (London: Longmans, Green, 1907), 1:58.
1. "French Account of the Action Near the River Ohio on the 9th of July 1755," Stanley M. Pargellis, ed., Military Affairs in North America, 1748—1765 (New York: D. Appleton Century, 1936), p. 129.
2. Duquesne to Marquis de Vaudreuil, July 6, 1755, NYCD, 10:300; DCB, 3:401; John Gilmary Shea, "Daniel Hyacinth Marie Lienard de Beaujeu," Pennsylvania Magazine 8 (1884): 123—24; Malcolm MacLeod, "Daniel-Marie Lienard de Beaujeu, 1711—1755," Dalhousie Review (1973): 296—309.
3. Shea, "Daniel Hyacinth," p. 124.
4. Ibid., p. 125.
5. James Smith, An Account of the Remarkable Occurrences in the Life and Travels of Colonel James Smith (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke, 1870), pp. 10-11.
6. Descriptions of the events leadingto the battle abound, and they are sometimes contradictory. See Lee McCardell, Ill-Starred General Braddock of the Coldstream Guards (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1986), pp. 209-65; Winthrop Sargent, The History of an Expedition Against Fort Duquesne in 1755 (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo, 1855), passim.
7. "The Journal of Captain Robert Cholmley's Batman," in Charles Hamilton, ed., Braddock's Defeat (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1959), p. 28.
8. Ibid., p.30.
9. McCardell, Ill-Starred General, p. 250.
10. "The Journal of a British Officer," in Hamilton, Braddock's Defeat, p. 51.
11. Ibid., p. 52.
12. Washington to Mary Ball Washington, July 18, 1755, W. W. Abbot, ed., The Papers of George Washington (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1983), 1:336.
13. "The Journal of a British Officer," p. 52.
14. Sylvester K. Stevens, Donald H. Kent, and Emma E. Woods, eds., Travels in New France by J. C B. (Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical Commission, 1961), pp. 82-85.
15. "Journal of Proceedings from Wills Creek to the Monongahela," Harry Gordon to [?], July 23, 1755, Pargellis, Military Affairs, p. 107.
16. Biographical memoranda, John C. Fitzpatrick, ed., The Writings of George Washington, 39 vols. (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989), 29:45; see also King L. Parker, "Anglo-American Wilderness Campaigning, 1754—1764," Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1970, p. 180.
17. Geoffrey J. Marcus, Quiberon Bay: The Campaign in Home Waters, 1759 (London; Hollis and Carter, 1960), p. 2.
18. Quoted in Corbett, England in the Seven Years, 1:42—43.
19. Journal of M. de Vaudreuil's voyage to Canada, NYCD, 10:297—99; Boscawen's letter to his wife is quoted in N. A. M. Rodger, The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy (London: Collins, 1986), p. 44; Hardwicke's comment is quoted in Corbett, England in the Seven Years War, 1:58.
20. NYCD, 10:292.
21. Sketch of regulations, Pargellis, Military Affairs, p. 35; commission from Edward Braddock, Alexandria, April 15, 1755, James Sullivan, ed., The Papers of Sir William Johnson, 14 vols. (Albany: University of the State of New York, 1921—65), 1:465—66; James Thomas Flexner, Lord of the Mohawks: A Biography of Sir William Johnson (Boston: Little, Brown, 1959), pp. 124—25.
22. Baron de Dieskau to Count d'Argenson (minister of war), September 14, 1755, NYCD, 10:3l6-l8.
23. Johnson to Edward Braddock, June 27, 1755, Johnson Papers, 1:663.
24. [Minutes of] Conference Between Major General Johnson and the Indians, 21 June—4 July 1755, ibid., 6:964—89; Flexner, Lord of the Mohawks, pp. 129—33.
25. Flexner, Land of the Mohawks, 133.
26. Johnson to the Lords of Trade, September 3, 1755, NYCD, 6:994.
27. Ibid.
28. Gerald E. Bradfield, Fort William Henry: Digging in History (n.p.: privately printed, 2001), pp. 24—25; David R. Starbuck, The Great Warpath: British Military Sites from Albany to Crown Point (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1999), pp. 54—82; Noel St. John Williams, Redcoats Along the Hudson. The Struggle for North America (London: Brassey's, 1997), pp. 82—83; Parker, "Anglo-American Wilderness Campaigning," pp. 188—98.
29. Quoted in Flexner, Lord of the Mohawks, p. 189.
30. Johnson to the Lords of Trade, September 3, 1755, NYCD, 6:997.
31. Johnson to DeLancey, September 4, 1755, Sullivan, Johnson Papers, 2:8-9.
32. Quoted in Fred Anderson, A People's Army: Massachusetts Soldiers and Society in the Seven Years War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), p. 96.
33. Dieskau to Count d'Argenson, September 7, 1755, NYCD, 10:317.
34. Ibid.
35. For British descriptions of the battle, see NYCD, 6:1002-6; for French, see NYCD, 10:335—45.
36. For a visual depiction of the battle, see "A Prospective Plan of the Battle Fought Near Lake George on the 8th September 1755." Drawn by Samuel Blodgett, engraving by Thomas Johnston, Boston, 1755.
37. NYCD, 10:339.
38. Starbuck, The Great Warpath, pp. 112—13.
39. Quoted in Geoffrey Plank, An Unsettled Conquest: The British Campaign Against the People of Acadia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), p. 145; for a decidedly pro-British point of view, see James P. Baxter, "What Caused the Deportation of the Acadians?" Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 13 (April 1899):74—100.
40. John Brewse to the Board of Ordnance, October 18, 1755. Pargellis, Military Affairs, pp. 146—48; Dominick Graham, "The Planning of the Beausejour Operation and the Approaches to War in 1755," New England Quarterly 41 (1968):558—66; John C. Webster, The Forts of Chignecto: A Study of the Eighteenth Century Conflict Between France and Great Britain in Acadia (St. John: Rapid Grip, 1980).
41. DCB, 4:250.
42. Horace Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of King George the Second, ed. Lord Holland, 3 vols. (London: Henry Colburn, 1846), 1:896.
43. Vaudreuil to Machault, October 30, 1755, NYCD, 10:875.
5. Montcalm and Loudoun
Epigraph. Henri-Raymond Casgrain, ed., Lettres du Marquis de Montcalm (Quebec: L. J. Demere and Frere, 1894), p. 35. Collection des manuscrits du marchal de Lévis (Montreal: C. 0. Beauchemin, 1889—1895). This book is one of the volumes in Casgrain's invaluable collection. It consists of the following volumes: Journal Des Campagnes Du Chevalier De Lévis, Lettres Du Chevalier De Lévis, Lettres De La Cour De Versailles, Lettres et Pieces Militaires, Lettres De M. De Bourlamaque au Chevalier De Lévis, Lettres Du Marquis De Montcalm au Chevalier De Lévis, Journal Du Marquis De Montcalm, Lettres Du Marquis De Vaudreuil au Chevalier De Lévis, Lettres De I'lntendant Bigot au Chevalier De Lévis, Lettres De Divers Particuliers au Chevalier De Lévis, Relations etjourneaux De Differentes Expeditions, and Table Analytique.
1. Quoted in Julian S. Corbett, England in the Seven Years War, 2 vols. (London: Longmans, Green, 1907), 1:61.
2. A. C. Carter, "Transfer of Certain Public Debt Stocks in the London Money Market from 1 Jan-uaryto31 March 1755," Bulletin ofthe Institute of Historical Research 28 (November 1955)1208—9.
3. William Shirley to Thomas Dunbar, August 12, 1755, Charles Henry Lincoln, ed., The Correspondence of William Shirley, 2 vols. (NewYork: Macmillan, 1912), 2:231—34.
4. Arthur L. Perry, Origins in Williams town (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1896), p. 326.
5. Johnson to Shirley, July 29, 1755, James Sullivan, ed
., The Papers of Sir William Johnson, 14 vols. (Albany: University of the State of New York, 1921-65), 1:790.
6. John F. Luzader, Fort Stanwix Construction and Military History (Fort Washington: Eastern National, 2001), pp. 1—2.
7. Elkanah Watson, History of Western Canals in the State of New York (Albany: D. Steele, 1820), pp. 31-34.
8. William Livingston, "A Review of the Military Operations in North America," Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society 1ST Series, 7 (Boston: MHS, 1800), p. 95.
9. Gilbert Hagerty, Massacre at Fort Bull (Providence: Mowbray, 1971), pp. 21-29.
10. Shirley's movements can be followed in Lincoln, Correspondence of William Shirley, 2:261—325; John A. Schutz, William Shirley: King's Governor of Massachusetts (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961), pp. 205—24.
11. Journal of occurrences in Canada, NYCD, 10:403? Hagerty, Massacre at Fort Bull, p. 32.
12. Ibid., 10:404.
13. Abstracts of dispatches from Canada, NYCD, 10:423.
14. Susan Wright Henderson, "The French Regular Officer Corps in Canada, 1755-1760: A Group Portrait," Ph.D. diss., University of Maine, 1975, pp. 67-89. For the relationship between Vaudreuil and Montcalm, see Roger Michalon, "Vaudreuil et Montcalm, les hommes leurs relations influence de ces relations sur la conduite de la guerre, 1756-1759," in Jean Delmas, ed., Conflicts des societes au Canada francais pendant las Guerre de Sept Ans (Vincennes, France: Service historique armee de terre, 1978), pp. 41-176; DCB, 3:458-69; DCB, 4:660-74.
15. DCB, 4:477. Lévis's service in Canada is documented in Casgrain, Collection. See "Notice Historique sur la Maison De Lévis," Journal Du Chevalier De Lévis, pp. 19—31.
16. DCB, 3:84-87.
17. Henderson, "The French Regular Officer Corps," passim; Guy Fregault, Canada: The War of the Conquest (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1969), pp. 60—65.
18. Montcalm to Lévis, August 17, 1756, Casgrain, Lettres Du Marquis De Montcalm, p. 35.
19. Montcalm to Count d'Argenson (minister of war), June 12, 1756, NYCD, 10:414.
20. Among Shirley's most persistent and potent critics was the ambitious Thomas Pownall, who sought Shirley's post as governor of Massachusetts. Pownall's brother was secretary to the lords of trade and was quick to use his influence on Thomas's behalf against Shirley. Schutz, Thomas Pownall (Glendale: Arthur H. Clark, 1951), pp. 20-21, 59-67.
21. Stanley M. Pargellis, Lord Loudoun in North America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1933), pp. 39-40.
22. Ibid., p. 41.
23. Daniel P. Marston, "Swift and Bold: The 60th Regiment and Warfare in North America, 1755—1765." M.A. thesis, McGill University, 1997, pp. 28—27.
24. Loudoun's formal title was "His Excellency John Earl of Loudoun Lord Machline and Tarrinzean etc etc etc, one of the Sixteen Peers of Scotland; Governor and Captain General of Virginia, and Vice Admiral of the same; Colonel in chief of the Thirtieth Regiment of Foot; Colonel in Chief of the Royal American Regiment; Major General; and Commander in Chief of all His Majesty's Forces Raised or to be raised in North America." Pargellis, Lord Loudoun, 43n.
25. John Shy, "James Abercromby and the Campaign of 1758," M.A. thesis, University of Vermont, 1957, pp. 1-25.
26. Pargellis, Lord Loudoun, pp. 83-86.
27. Loudoun to Henry Fox, August 19, 1756, Loudoun Papers, Huntington Library, San Marino, Calif.
28. Abstracts of dispatches from Canada, NYCD, 10:423.
29. The Bulletin of the Fort Ticonderoga Museum, published since 1927, chronicles the history of the fort. Of particular importance for this period are the documents edited by Nicholas Westbrook and Ian McCulloch in vol. 16 (1998): 16—107.
30. Norreys O'Conor, A Servant of the Crown in England and North America, 1756-1761: Based Upon the Papers of John Appy (New York: D. Appleton, 1988), pp. 75—77.
31. DNB, 3:828.
32. King L. Parker, "Anglo-American Wilderness Campaigning, 1754—1764: Logistical and Tactical Developments," Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1970, p. 165. Bradstreet's bateaux were built locally, and so they differed in design and construction from similar craft laid down elsewhere. His boats were sharp at both ends and capable of carrying about twelve hundred pounds. In shallow water men moved the boats by poling. French bateaux tended to be larger and stable enough that men could fire from a standing position. English boats were less stable and likely to capsize under similar circumstances.
33. Loudoun to Duke of Cumberland, October 2, 1756, Pargellis, ed., Military Affairs, p. 285.
34. Edward P. Hamilton, ed., Adventure in the Wilderness: The American Journals of Louis Antoine Bougainville, 1756-1760 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1964), p. 11; documents describing the Oswego campaign maybe found in NYCD, 10:440-75.
35. Quoted in D. Peter MacLeod, The Canadian Iroquois and the Seven Years War (Toronto: Dun-durn Press, 1996), p. 79.
36. The British view may be found in "A Journal of the Transactions at Oswego . . . by Patrick Mackellar," Pargellis, Military Affairs, pp. 187—221.
37. M. de Vaudreuil to Count d'Argenson, August 20, 1756, NYCD, 10:473.
38. M de Montcalm to Count d'Argenson, August 28, 1756, ibid., 10:464.
39. Ibid.
6. A Failure and a "Massacre"
Epigraph. Quoted in Ian Steele, Betrayals: Fort William Henry and the "Massacre" (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 100.
1. E. Malcolm-Smith, British Diplomacy in the Eighteenth Century (London: Williams and Norgate, 1937), pp. 142-43.
2. Arthur George Doughty and George William Parmalee, eds., The Siege of Quebec and the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, 6 vols. (Quebec: Dussault and Proulx, 1901), 1:xxi—xxx.
3. Horace Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of King George the Second, 3 vols. (London: Henry Colburn, 1846), 2:68—69; 0. A. Sherrard, Lord Chatham: Pitt and the Seven Years War (London: Bodley Head, 1956), p. 92.
4. Quoted in Sherrard, Lord Chatham, p. 131.
5. The literature on William Pitt the Elder is considerable. See Karl W. Schweizer, William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, 1708-1778: A Bibliography (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1993).
6. Stanley Ayling, The Elder Pitt (New York: David McKay, 1976), p. 181.
7. Sherrard, Lord Chatham, p. 142.
8. Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of George the Second, 3:84.
9. For an analysis of the problems faced by Loudoun, see Alan Rogers, Empire and Liberty:American Resistance to British Authority, 1755-1763 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), passim.
10. Fred Anderson, A People's Army: Massachusetts Soldiers and Society in the Seven Years War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), p. 12.
11. Stanley M. Pargellis, Lord Loudoun in North America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), pp. 90-91.
12. Anderson, People's Army, pp. 172—78; Pargellis, Lord Loudoun, p. 91.
13. Loudoun to Henry Fox, August 19, 1756, Loudoun Papers, Huntington Library, San Marino, Calif.
14. Louis E. DeForest, ed., The Journals and Papers of Seth Pomeroy (New York: Society of Colonial Wars, 1926), pp. 152-53; Pargellis, Lord Loudoun, p. 91.
15. Loudoun to Henry Fox, August 19, 1756, Loudoun Papers.
16. Loudoun to Denny, September 22, 1756, Minutes ofthe Provincial Council of Pennsylvania (Harrisburg: Theo Penn, 1851), 7:270.
17. Loudoun to Cumberland, August 20, 1756, Stanley M. Pargellis, ed., Military Affairs in North America, 1748-1765 (NewYork: D. Appleton Century, 1936), p. 224.
18. J. R. Trumbull, History of Northampton, Massachusetts, 2 vols. (Northampton: Gazette Printing, 1902), 2:288.
19. Loudoun to Cumberland, November 22, 1756, Pargellis, Military Affairs, p. 269.
20. The standard biography is John R. Cuneo, Robert Rogers of the Rangers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959). Rogers's journals have been most recently edited by Timothy J. Todish, in The Annotated and Illustrated Journals of Major Robert Rogers (Fleischmanns, N.Y.: Purple Mountain
Press, 2002).
21. Loudoun to Cumberland, November 22, 1756, Pargellis, Military Affairs, p. 269. A modern historian, William Foote, "American Units of the British Regular Army, 1664-1772," M.A. thesis, Texas Western University, 1959, describes rangers as "expensive and unreliable," p. 215.
22. Cuneo, Robert Rogers, pp. 45—51; Todish, Journals of Major Robert Rogers, pp. 58—62.
23. Gerald E. Bradfield, Fort William Henry: Digging Up History (n.p.: French and Indian War Society, 2001), pp. 1-25; David R. Starbuck, The Great Warpath: British Military Sites from Albany to Crown Point (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1999), pp. 12—14; and Noel St. John Williams, Redcoats Along the Hudson (London: Brassey, 1997), p. 118.
24. Remarks on Forts William Henry and Edward by Henry Gordon. Pargellis, Military Affairs, p.180.
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