by Willis, Sam
16
For details of the political process behind the Commission, see Wickwire, ‘John Pownall’, 549.
17
Leslie, ‘Gaspee Affair’, 241.
18
Park, ‘HMS Gaspee’, 2.
19
Maier, Resistance to Revolution, 215, 231; Bumsted and Clark, ‘Tom Paine’, 566; Stout, Navy in America, v; Bunker, Empire on the Edge, 113.
20
Stout, Navy in America, 158.
21
Schlesinger, ‘Political Mobs’, 248.
22
Leslie, ‘Gaspee Affair’, 243–4.
23
Park, ‘HMS Gaspee’, 2, 133.
24
Park, ‘HMS Gaspee’, 10.
25
Weintraub, Iron Tears, 5.
26
Bowen, John Adams, 439.
27
Bowen, John Adams, 439; Bunker, Empire on the Edge, 373 ff.
28
Anson, Grafton Correspondence, 266 ff.; Donoughue, British Politics, 284–5; Bunker, Empire on the Edge, 369.
29
Baugh, ‘Why did Britain?’, 155.
30
Tilley, British Navy, 9.
31
Tilley, British Navy, 9.
32
Alcedo, Geographical and Historical Dictionary, 178.
33
NDAR I: 24, 58, 59, 177; Stout, ‘Manning’, 185; Mercer, ‘Northern Exposure’, 207–11; Barnes and Owen, Sandwich Papers, I, 41.
34
NDAR I: 61; N. Miller, Sea of Glory, 17.
35
Stout, Navy in America, 161.
36
Tilley, British Navy, 11–13.
37
Tilley, British Navy, 11; T. C. Barrow, Trade and Empire, 249–50.
38
Barnes and Owen, Sandwich Papers, I, 42.
39
Tilley, British Navy, 3; Rodger, Insatiable Earl, 225–7; Yerxa, ‘Samuel Graves’, 372; ODNB: ‘Graves, Samuel (1713–1787)’.
40
Higginbotham, ‘State Formation’, 58–9.
41
Magra, Fisherman’s Cause, 98; Marshall, Making and Unmaking, 13; Buel, In Irons, 1, 31.
42
Ramsay, History, 74–5. Many thanks to Dr Mike Duffy for this reference.
3 European Gunpowder
1
G. Cole, ‘Ordnance Office’, 166.
2
G. Cole, ‘Ordnance Office’, 143; West, Gunpowder, 171.
3
West, Gunpowder, 172; Stephenson, ‘Supply’, 274–5; Salav, ‘Production’, 425.
4
Magra, Fisherman’s Cause, 162.
5
Glete, Navies and Nations, I, 271.
6
Syrett, European Waters, 4.
7
R. P. Richmond, Powder Alarm, 96.
8
Caughey, Gálvez, 87.
9
Syrett, American Waters, 22, 30; Magra, Fisherman’s Cause, 166.
10
An extraordinary story in itself. See Morton and Spinelli, Beaumarchais; R. R. Butler, Figaro’s Fleet; Dull, Diplomatic History, 60–1.
11
O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 14.
12
NDAR I: 388; Jamieson, ‘Leeward Islands’, 111.
13
Tuchman, First Salute, 9.
14
O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 331.
15
NDAR I: 23–4; MHS: Graves Conduct, 418; Yerxa, ‘Samuel Graves’, 373.
16
NDAR I: 178.
17
Stout, Navy in America, 162–3; NDAR I: 124.
18
Moomaw, ‘Captain Hamond’, 247.
19
Magra, Fisherman’s Cause, 172.
20
Bunker, Empire on the Edge, 306–7; Fischer, Revere’s Ride, 48.
21
Stout, Navy in America, 163; Ward, War for Independence, 13; Tilley, British Navy, 15–16; NDAR I: 38.
22
Fischer, Revere’s Ride, 57; NDAR I: 15, 40.
23
Stephenson, ‘Supply’, 273.
24
C. E. Carter, Gage Correspondence, I, 377; II, 654.
25
Bunker, Empire on the Edge, 330.
26
McCurry, ‘North Government’, 143.
27
R. P. Richmond, Powder Alarm, 105.
28
McCurry, ‘North Government’, 145; Bunker, Empire on the Edge, 343–63.
29
NDAR I: 179.
30
Tilley, British Navy, 23.
31
Knight, ‘Recovery’, 12.
32
NDAR I: 192; Mackenzie, Diary, I, 18.
33
Olson and Doescher, ‘Astronomical’, 439–40.
34
Fischer, Revere’s Ride, 262.
35
NDAR I: 372.
36
NDAR I: 206.
37
Fischer, Revere’s Ride, 284; NDAR I: 202.
38
NDAR I: 249.
39
NDAR I: 226.
40
NDAR I: 224–6, 229, 476–7, 480–1, 967–8, 991, 1306.
41
Rantoul, ‘Quero’, 13.
42
Tilley, British Navy, 46; Rantoul, ‘Quero’, 11.
43
Rantoul, ‘Quero’, 10.
44
Rantoul, ‘Quero’, 6.
45
NDAR I: 325, 484.
46
Rantoul, ‘Quero’, 14.
47
Fischer, Revere’s Ride, 416 n.50.
48
Fischer, Revere’s Ride, 275.
49
Fischer, Revere’s Ride, 290.
50
Stout, Navy in America, 135; Tilley, British Navy, 32.
51
Bunker, Empire on the Edge, 349.
4 Canadian Invasion
1
For a brief discussion of this point with particular relevance to the prehistory of the Royal Navy, see Rodger, Safeguard, xxiv–xxv. See also Hattendorf, Talking about Naval History, 185; and for the prehistory of the American navy, see Dull, American Naval History, 1–16.
2
Randall, Benedict Arnold, 94.
3
E. Allen, Narrative, 6.
4
Nelson, Arnold’s Navy, 24–9.
5
Bellesiles, Outlaws, 118.
6
NDAR I: 367, 503–4.
7
Randall, Benedict Arnold, 109.
8
NDAR I: 671–3.
9
NDAR I: 340.
10
NDAR I: 763; Higginbotham, ‘State Formation’, 59.
11
NDAR I: 1217.
12
NDAR II: 145, 162–3, 217–18, 867.
13
NDAR II: 531–5.
14
NDAR II: 1078.
15
NDAR II: 1221.
16
NDAR II: 1104.
17
Desjardin, Howling Wilderness, 20.
18
NDAR II: 38; Smith and Knight, Troubled Waters, 32.
19
Desjardin, Howling Wilderness, 21.
20
There are several important sources for the cost of pre-revolutionary bateaux, one of the most interesting being the daybook from a general store in Schenectady, New York, 1772–4; NYSA: BD 20583. Another excellent source is the Account Books of Daniel Campbell, a wealthy Schenectady merchant. These are also in the New York State Archives, SC 11062. Many thanks to the deeply knowledgeable David Manthey for sources and advice on all things bateau-related that appear in this book.
21
Desjardin, Howling Wi
lderness, 61.
22
Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 310.
23
NDAR II: 431.
24
NDAR II: 433.
25
Desjardin, Howling Wilderness, 60–1.
26
Desjardin, Howling Wilderness, 61.
27
NDAR II: 1006.
28
NDAR II: 1016.
29
Nelson, Arnold’s Navy, 125.
30
J. H. Smith, Our Struggle, 24.
31
NDAR II: 1016.
32
NDAR II: 1027.
33
Desjardin, Howling Wilderness, 119, 189.
34
NDAR II: 1171, 1173; Wrong, Canada, 93; Desjardin, Howling Wilderness, 122.
35
NMM: BGR/9.
36
Wrong, Canada, 101.
37
Mackesy, War for America, 50; Higginbotham, War of American Independence, 143.
38
ODNB: ‘Palliser, Sir Hugh’.
39
NDAR I: 127; NMM: SAN/F/7; TNA: ADM 2/372; ODNB: ‘Palliser, Sir Hugh’; Barnes and Owen, Sandwich Papers, I, 85.
40
NDAR III: 541; Rodger, Insatiable Earl, 227.
41
Douglas, ‘Account’, 41.
42
ODNB: ‘Douglas, Sir Charles’.
43
There are several important studies of ice and ice seamanship, but nothing can take the place of actually experiencing it. For historians a particularly interesting starting point is the US Navy Hydrographic Office’s Manual of Ice Seamanship (Washington, 1950).
44
TNA: ADM 1/1706, 8 May 1776.
45
TNA: ADM 51/484, ff. 27–8.
46
NDAR V: 225–7.
47
Higginbotham, War of American Independence, 115.
5 Colonial Sea Power
1
NDAR I: 202, 221–2, 297, 302–3, 325, 339.
2
NDAR I: 221, 252, 263.
3
Syrett, American Waters, 5.
4
For more examples of whaleboat attacks, see NDAR I: 602, 672, 786, 835, 858; MHS: Graves Conduct, 468.
5
Hattendorf, Talking about Naval History, 188.
6
Quoted in Daughan, If By Sea, 40.
7
NDAR I: 721–2.
8
NDAR I: 622.
9
Willis, ‘Archaeology’, 7–26.
10
Freeman, Washington, I, 151.
11
Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 299.
12
Nelson, Secret Navy, 54.
13
Bowen, John Adams, 547; Hattendorf, Talking about Naval History, 190.
14
Fowler, ‘Esek Hopkins’, 6.
15
Buel, In Irons, 80.
16
Daughan, If By Sea, 49.
17
Tilley, ‘Naval Policy Development’, Part II, 119.
18
Bowen, John Adams, 523; Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 317; Tilley, ‘Naval Policy Development’, Part I, 69–78.
19
O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 332. Fowler, Rebels, 4; Buel, In Irons, 30n.6.
20
Neeser, Shuldham Despatches, xxiii.
21
NDAR I: 287–9.
22
NDAR II: 36.
23
Chaleur (1764) NMM: ZAZ6084; Halifax (1768) ZAZ6199; Sultana (1768) ZAZ6088; Sir Edward Hawke (1768) ZAZ6085. The two from the war years are the Coureur (captured 1780) ZAZ6170 and Berbice (purchased 1780) ZAZ6119.
24
Smith and Knight, Troubled Waters, Plate 3. From the Peabody Museum in Salem.
25
Smith and Knight, Troubled Waters, 24.
26
Hattendorf, Talking about Naval History, 188.
27
Several ships in the US Navy have been named Jeremiah O’Brien and even a Second World War merchant ship, which survives as a museum ship in San Francisco. For more on the affair, see NDAR I: 655–6, 676–7; Churchill, ‘Margaretta Affair’, 60–74.
28
Paullin, Navy, 322; Hattendorf, Talking about Naval History, 189.
29
Jackson, Pennsylvania Navy, 11 ff.
30
Stewart, Virginia’s Navy, 3–15; Paullin, Navy, 398–401; Selby, Virginia, 76.
31
Paullin, Navy, 455–7.
32
Paullin, Navy, 356.
33
NDAR I: 764.
34
NDAR I: 764–5; Paullin, Navy, 418–20, 459–60.
35
Ansoff, ‘First Navy Jack’, 33–41; Jackson, Pennsylvania Navy, 17; Paullin, Navy, 327.
36
Gordon, Maritime Medicine, 112.
37
For more on the manning of the state navies and the interesting topic of motivation for service, see Gilje, ‘Loyalty and Liberty’.
38
Tilley, ‘American Revolutionary Naval Policy’, Part I, 70; Tilley, ‘Naval Policy Development’, Part II, 119; Tilley, ‘Naval Policy Development’, Part III, 194.
39
NDAR II: 442.
40
Hattendorf, Talking about Naval History, 193. For detailed study of the first frigates, see Brewington, ‘Designs’.
41
Hattendorf, Talking about Naval History, 194.
42
Hattendorf, Talking about Naval History, 192; Magra, Fisherman’s Cause, 179.
43
Hattendorf, Talking about Naval History, 191.
44
The first draft still survives in the archives of the Connecticut Historical Society. NDAR II, 649–53; Hattendorf, Talking about Naval History, 193.
45
APDE: 28 November 1775.
46
APDE: to James Warren, 13 October 1775.
47
Dull, American Naval History, 31; Hattendorf, Talking about Naval History, 195.
48
Buel, In Irons, 94; Silverstone, Sailing Navy, xvii.
49
Rankin, ‘Naval Flag’, 341; Tuchman, First Salute, 48. The Grand Union flag existed until the Stars and Stripes was introduced in June 1777.
50
There is some debate over this. See NDAR II: 1307.
51
NDAR VII: 190, 313, 1018–19; Tuchman, First Salute, 5–8.
52
Armitage, Declaration, 36.
53
Tilley, ‘American Naval Policy Development’, Part III, 196.
54
Paullin, Navy, 321; Tilley, ‘Naval Policy Development’, Part II, 121, 126.
55
Buel, In Irons, 37; Tilley, ‘American Naval Policy Development’, Part III, 194–9.
56
Tilley, ‘American Naval Policy Development’, Part III, 198.
57
Foy, ‘Ports of Slavery’, 275, 280.
58
Alberts, Golden Voyage, 36.
59
Patton, Patriot Pirates, 79–80.
60
APDE: J. Adams to A. Adams, 22 May 1777; GWP VI: 396; Patton, Patriot Pirates, 34.
61
Syrett, ‘Germain’, 395–405.
62
MHS: Graves Conduct, 4 December 1775.
63
Patton, Patriot Pirates, 31.
64
NDAR III: 69–72; MHS Graves Conduct, 4 December 1775.
65
GWP IV: 130.
66
Daughan, If By Sea, 43.
67
Syrett, American Waters, 23.
68
Bowler, Logistics, 96.
69
NDAR IV: 697, 7
08–9, 746–7; Tuchman, First Salute, 49; Morison, John Paul Jones, 43–8.
70
The names chosen for the early Continental vessels are interesting. See NDAR III: 173.
71
Most of the powder was secured, however, because the Americans delayed their attack until daylight. NDAR IV: 133; McCusker, ‘Invasion of Nassau’, 189–217; Morison, John Paul Jones, 43–8; Callo, John Paul Jones, 25–8.
