If Atossa had desired it, an entire retinue of physicians from Babylonia to Greece would have flocked to her bedside to treat her. Instead, she descended into a fierce and impenetrable loneliness. She wrapped herself in sheets, in a self-imposed quarantine. Darius’ doctors may have tried to treat her, but to no avail. Ultimately, a Greek slave named Democedes persuaded her to allow him to excise the tumor.
Soon after that operation, Atossa mysteriously vanishes from Herodotus’ text. For him, she is merely a minor plot twist. We don’t know whether the tumor recurred, or how or when she died, but the procedure was at least a temporary success. Atossa lived, and she had Democedes to thank for it. And that reprieve from pain and illness whipped her into a frenzy of gratitude and territorial ambition. Darius had been planning a campaign against Scythia, on the eastern border of his empire. Goaded by Democedes, who wanted to return to his native Greece, Atossa pleaded with her husband to turn his campaign westward—to invade Greece. That turn of the Persian empire from east to west, and the series of Greco-Persian wars that followed, would mark one of the definitive moments in the early history of the West. It was Atossa’s tumor, then, that quietly launched a thousand ships. Cancer, even as a clandestine illness, left its fingerprints on the ancient world.
But Herodotus and Imhotep are storytellers, and like all stories, theirs have gaps and inconsistencies. The “cancers” described by them may have been true neoplasms, or perhaps they were hazily describing abscesses, ulcers, warts, or moles. The only incontrovertible cases of cancer in history are those in which the malignant tissue has somehow been preserved. And to encounter one such cancer face-to-face—to actually stare the ancient illness in its eye—one needs to journey to a thousand-year-old gravesite in a remote, sand-swept plain in the southern tip of Peru.
The plain lies at the northern edge of the Atacama Desert, a parched, desolate six-hundred-mile strip caught in the leeward shadow of the giant furl of the Andes that stretches from southern Peru into Chile. Brushed continuously by a warm, desiccating wind, the terrain hasn’t seen rain in recorded history. It is hard to imagine that human life once flourished here, but it did. The plain is strewn with hundreds of graves—small, shallow pits dug out of the clay, then lined carefully with rock. Over the centuries, dogs, storms, and grave robbers have dug out these shallow graves, exhuming history.
The graves contain the mummified remains of members of the Chiribaya tribe. The Chiribaya made no effort to preserve their dead, but the climate is almost providentially perfect for mummification. The clay leaches water and fluids out of the body from below, and the wind dries the tissues from above. The bodies, often placed seated, are thus swiftly frozen in time and space.
In 1990, one such large desiccated gravesite containing about 140 bodies caught the attention of Arthur Aufderheide, a professor at the University of Minnesota in Duluth. Aufderheide is a pathologist by training but his specialty is paleopathology, a study of ancient specimens. His autopsies, unlike Farber’s, are not performed on recently living patients, but on the mummified remains found on archaeological sites. He stores these human specimens in small, sterile milk containers in a vaultlike chamber in Minnesota. There are nearly five thousand pieces of tissue, scores of biopsies, and hundreds of broken skeletons in his closet.
At the Chiribaya site, Aufderheide rigged up a makeshift dissecting table and performed 140 autopsies over several weeks. One body revealed an extraordinary finding. The mummy was of a young woman in her midthirties, found sitting, with her feet curled up, in a shallow clay grave. When Aufderheide examined her, his fingers found a hard “bulbous mass” in her left upper arm. The papery folds of skin, remarkably preserved, gave way to that mass, which was intact and studded with spicules of bone. This, without question, was a malignant bone tumor, an osteosarcoma, a thousand-year-old cancer preserved inside of a mummy. Aufderheide suspects that the tumor had broken through the skin while she was still alive. Even small osteosarcomas can be unimaginably painful. The woman’s pain, he suggests, must have been blindingly intense.
Aufderheide isn’t the only paleopathologist to have found cancers in mummified specimens. (Bone tumors, because they form hardened and calcified tissue, are vastly more likely to survive over centuries and are best preserved.) “There are other cancers found in mummies where the malignant tissue has been preserved. The oldest of these is an abdominal cancer from Dakhleh in Egypt from about four hundred AD,” he said. In other cases, paleopathologists have not found the actual tumors, but rather signs left by the tumors in the body. Some skeletons were riddled with tiny holes created by cancer in the skull or the shoulder bones, all arising from metastatic skin or breast cancer. In 1914, a team of archaeologists found a two-thousand-year old Egyptian mummy in the Alexandrian catacombs with a tumor invading the pelvic bone. Louis Leakey, the archaeologist who dug up Lucy, one of the earliest known human skeletons, also discovered a jawbone dating from 4000 BC from a nearby site that carried the signs of a peculiar form of lymphoma found endemically in southeastern Africa (although the origin of that tumor was never confirmed pathologically). If that finding does represent an ancient mark of malignancy, then cancer, far from being a “modern” disease, is one of the oldest diseases ever seen in a human specimen—quite possibly the oldest.
The most striking finding, though, is not that cancer existed in the distant past, but that it was fleetingly rare. When I asked Aufderheide about this, he laughed. “The early history of cancer,” he said, “is that there is very little early history of cancer.” The Mesopotamians knew their migraines; the Egyptians had a word for seizures. A leprosy-like illness, tsara’at, is mentioned in the book of Leviticus. The Hindu Vedas have a medical term for dropsy and a goddess specifically dedicated to smallpox. Tuberculosis was so omnipresent and familiar to the ancients that—as with ice and the Eskimos—distinct words exist for each incarnation of it. But even common cancers, such as breast, lung, and prostate, are conspicuously absent. With a few notable exceptions, in the vast stretch of medical history there is no book or god for cancer.
There are several reasons behind this absence. Cancer is an age-related disease—sometimes exponentially so. The risk of breast cancer, for instance, is about 1 in 400 for a thirty-year-old woman and increases to 1 in 9 for a seventy-year-old. In most ancient societies, people didn’t live long enough to get cancer. Men and women were long consumed by tuberculosis, dropsy, cholera, smallpox, leprosy, plague, or pneumonia. If cancer existed, it remained submerged under the sea of other illnesses. Indeed, cancer’s emergence in the world is the product of a double negative: it becomes common only when all other killers themselves have been killed. Nineteenth-century doctors often linked cancer to civilization: cancer, they imagined, was caused by the rush and whirl of modern life, which somehow incited pathological growth in the body. The link was correct, but the causality was not: civilization did not cause cancer, but by extending human life spans—civilization unveiled it.
Longevity, although certainly the most important contributor to the prevalence of cancer in the early twentieth century, is probably not the only contributor. Our capacity to detect cancer earlier and earlier, and to attribute deaths accurately to it, has also dramatically increased in the last century. The death of a child with leukemia in the 1850s would have been attributed to an abscess or infection (or, as Bennett would have it, to a “suppuration of blood”). And surgery, biopsy, and autopsy techniques have further sharpened our ability to diagnose cancer. The introduction of mammography to detect breast cancer early in its course sharply increased its incidence—a seemingly paradoxical result that makes perfect sense when we realize that the X-rays allow earlier tumors to be diagnosed.
Finally, changes in the structure of modern life have radically shifted the spectrum of cancers—increasing the incidence of some, decreasing the incidence of others. Stomach cancer, for instance, was highly prevalent in certain populations until the late nineteenth century, likely the result of several carcinogens fo
und in pickling reagents and preservatives and exacerbated by endemic and contagious infection with a bacterium that causes stomach cancer. With the introduction of modern refrigeration (and possibly changes in public hygiene that have diminished the rate of endemic infection), the stomach cancer epidemic seems to have abated. In contrast, lung cancer incidence in men increased dramatically in the 1950s as a result of an increase in cigarette smoking during the early twentieth century. In women, a cohort that began to smoke in the 1950s, lung cancer incidence has yet to reach its peak.
The consequence of these demographic and epidemiological shifts was, and is, enormous. In 1900, as Roswell Park noted, tuberculosis was by far the most common cause of death in America. Behind tuberculosis came pneumonia (William Osler, the famous physician from Johns Hopkins University, called it “captain of the men of death”), diarrhea, and gastroenteritis. Cancer still lagged at a distant seventh. By the early 1940s, cancer had ratcheted its way to second on the list, immediately behind heart disease. In that same span, life expectancy among Americans had increased by about twenty-six years. The proportion of persons above sixty years—the age when most cancers begin to strike—nearly doubled.
But the rarity of ancient cancers notwithstanding, it is impossible to forget the tumor growing in the bone of Aufderheide’s mummy of a thirty-five-year-old. The woman must have wondered about the insolent gnaw of pain in her bone, and the bulge slowly emerging from her arm. It is hard to look at the tumor and not come away with the feeling that one has encountered a powerful monster in its infancy.
Onkos
Black bile without boiling causes cancers.
—Galen, AD 130
We have learned nothing, therefore, about the real cause of cancer or its actual nature. We are where the Greeks were.
—Francis Carter Wood in 1914
It’s bad bile. It’s bad habits. It’s bad bosses. It’s bad genes.
—Mel Greaves, Cancer:
The Evolutionary Legacy, 2000
In some ways disease does not exist until we have agreed that it does—by perceiving, naming, and responding to it.
—C. E. Rosenberg
Even an ancient monster needs a name. To name an illness is to describe a certain condition of suffering—a literary act before it becomes a medical one. A patient, long before he becomes the subject of medical scrutiny, is, at first, simply a storyteller, a narrator of suffering—a traveler who has visited the kingdom of the ill. To relieve an illness, one must begin, then, by unburdening its story.
The names of ancient illnesses are condensed stories in their own right. Typhus, a stormy disease, with erratic, vaporous fevers, arose from the Greek tuphon, the father of winds—a word that also gives rise to the modern typhoon. Influenza emerged from the Latin influentia because medieval doctors imagined that the cyclical epidemics of flu were influenced by stars and planets revolving toward and away from the earth. Tuberculosis coagulated out of the Latin tuber, referring to the swollen lumps of glands that looked like small vegetables. Lymphatic tuberculosis, TB of the lymph glands, was called scrofula, from the Latin word for “piglet,” evoking the rather morbid image of a chain of swollen glands arranged in a line like a group of suckling pigs.
It was in the time of Hippocrates, around 400 BC, that a word for cancer first appeared in the medical literature: karkinos, from the Greek word for “crab.” The tumor, with its clutch of swollen blood vessels around it, reminded Hippocrates of a crab dug in the sand with its legs spread in a circle. The image was peculiar (few cancers truly resemble crabs), but also vivid. Later writers, both doctors and patients, added embellishments. For some, the hardened, matted surface of the tumor was reminiscent of the tough carapace of a crab’s body. Others felt a crab moving under the flesh as the disease spread stealthily throughout the body. For yet others, the sudden stab of pain produced by the disease was like being caught in the grip of a crab’s pincers.
Another Greek word would intersect with the history of cancer—onkos, a word used occasionally to describe tumors, from which the discipline of oncology would take its modern name. Onkos was the Greek term for a mass or a load, or more commonly a burden; cancer was imagined as a burden carried by the body. In Greek theater, the same word, onkos, would be used to denote a tragic mask that was often “burdened” with an unwieldy conical weight on its head to denote the psychic load carried by its wearer.
But while these vivid metaphors might resonate with our contemporary understanding of cancer, what Hippocrates called karkinos and the disease that we now know as cancer were, in fact, vastly different creatures. Hippocrates’ karkinos were mostly large, superficial tumors that were easily visible to the eye: cancers of the breast, skin, jaw, neck, and tongue. Even the distinction between malignant and nonmalignant tumors likely escaped Hippocrates: his karkinos included every conceivable form of swelling—nodes, carbuncles, polyps, protrusions, tubercles, pustules, and glands—lumps lumped indiscriminately into the same category of pathology.
The Greeks had no microscopes. They had never imagined an entity called a cell, let alone seen one, and the idea that karkinos was the uncontrolled growth of cells could not possibly have occurred to them. They were, however, preoccupied with fluid mechanics—with waterwheels, pistons, valves, chambers, and sluices—a revolution in hydraulic science originating with irrigation and canal-digging and culminating with Archaemedes discovering his eponymous laws in his bathtub. This preoccupation with hydraulics also flowed into Greek medicine and pathology. To explain illness—all illness—Hippocrates fashioned an elaborate doctrine based on fluids and volumes, which he freely applied to pneumonia, boils, dysentery, and hemorrhoids. The human body, Hippocrates proposed, was composed of four cardinal fluids called humors: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm. Each of these fluids had a unique color (red, black, yellow, and white), viscosity, and essential character. In the normal body, these four fluids were held in perfect, if somewhat precarious, balance. In illness, this balance was upset by the excess of one fluid.
The physician Claudius Galen, a prolific writer and influential Greek doctor who practiced among the Romans around AD 160, brought Hippocrates’ humoral theory to its apogee. Like Hippocrates, Galen set about classifying all illnesses in terms of excesses of various fluids. Inflammation—a red, hot, painful distension—was attributed to an overabundance of blood. Tubercles, pustules, catarrh, and nodules of lymph—all cool, boggy, and white—were excesses of phlegm. Jaundice was the overflow of yellow bile. For cancer, Galen reserved the most malevolent and disquieting of the four humors: black bile. (Only one other disease, replete with metaphors, would be attributed to an excess of this oily, viscous humor: depression. Indeed, melancholia, the medieval name for “depression,” would draw its name from the Greek melas, “black,” and khole, “bile.” Depression and cancer, the psychic and physical diseases of black bile, were thus intrinsically intertwined.) Galen proposed that cancer was “trapped” black bile—static bile unable to escape from a site and thus congealed into a matted mass. “Of blacke cholor [bile], without boyling cometh cancer,” Thomas Gale, the English surgeon, wrote of Galen’s theory in the sixteenth century, “and if the humor be sharpe, it maketh ulceration, and for this cause, these tumors are more blacker in color.”
That short, vivid description would have a profound impact on the future of oncology—much broader than Galen (or Gale) may have intended. Cancer, Galenic theory suggested, was the result of a systemic malignant state, an internal overdose of black bile. Tumors were just local outcroppings of a deep-seated bodily dysfunction, an imbalance of physiology that had pervaded the entire corpus. Hippocrates had once abstrusely opined that cancer was “best left untreated, since patients live longer that way.” Five centuries later, Galen had explained his teacher’s gnomic musings in a fantastical swoop of physiological conjecture. The problem with treating cancer surgically, Galen suggested, was that black bile was everywhere, as inevitable and pervasive as any fluid. You could cut ca
ncer out, but the bile would flow right back, like sap seeping through the limbs of a tree.
Galen died in Rome in 199 AD, but his influence on medicine stretched over the centuries. The black-bile theory of cancer was so metaphorically seductive that it clung on tenaciously in the minds of doctors. The surgical removal of tumors—a local solution to a systemic problem—was thus perceived as a fool’s operation. Generations of surgeons layered their own observations on Galen’s, solidifying the theory even further. “Do not be led away and offer to operate,” John of Arderne wrote in the mid-1300s. “It will only be a disgrace to you.” Leonard Bertipaglia, perhaps the most influential surgeon of the fifteenth century, added his own admonishment: “Those who pretend to cure cancer by incising, lifting, and extirpating it only transform a nonulcerous cancer into an ulcerous one. . . . In all my practice, I have never seen a cancer cured by incision, nor known anyone who has.”
Unwittingly, Galen may actually have done the future victims of cancer a favor—at least a temporary one. In the absence of anesthesia and antibiotics, most surgical operations performed in the dank chamber of a medieval clinic—or more typically in the back room of a barbershop with a rusty knife and leather straps for restraints—were disastrous, life-threatening affairs. The sixteenth-century surgeon Ambroise Paré described charring tumors with a soldering iron heated on coals, or chemically searing them with a paste of sulfuric acid. Even a small nick in the skin, treated thus, could quickly suppurate into a lethal infection. The tumors would often profusely bleed at the slightest provocation.
The Emperor of All Maladies Page 6
