by King, Tom
Pearl Harbor
Later in 1941, a newly threatening battle was taking place on the opposite side of the world from the war in Europe, with the U.S. and Japan preparing for a significant battle in the Pacific Ocean Theater. Though the U.S. had no reason to suspect it, the Japanese were making their way to Pearl Harbor, the home base for much of the U.S.’s resources in the Pacific. With most of the United States’ battleships in port and planes clustered on the airfields, Pearl Harbor made for a risky but ideal target for the Japanese, especially if they could incorporate the element of surprise.
Having long studied the U.S.’s movements and patterns in the Pacific, the Japanese quickly took note of the fact that the U.S. Navy returned to Pearl Harbor every weekend for respite. With the battleships and airplanes as sitting ducks for an air offensive, this made Pearl Harbor the ideal candidate for Japan’s next target. However, Pearl Harbor was a very dangerous mission for the same reason it was the perfect target; should the Americans learn of Japan’s plan, they could be armored and readily awaiting the arrival of the Japanese, inflicting serious damage before the Japanese could even take aim. Thus, the leaders of the attack on Pearl Harbor insisted on developing detailed backup attacks, determined to only retreat without a fight if they were discovered prematurely. The commanders of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Commanders Mitsuo Fuchida and Minoru Genda, were both young aviators who believed that aviation could determine the course of war, unlike the older generation of Japanese who believed that war depended primarily on battleships. With Vice-Admiral Chuichi Nagumo, an older Japanese commander, in charge of carrying out Fuchida and Genda’s plans, Pearl Harbor represented the perfect target for all generations and allowed for the Japanese to both sink battleships and ground airplanes. The hope with the attack on Pearl Harbor was to neutralize the U.S.’s power in the Pacific Basin for at least six months, allowing Japan the opportunity to occupy the East Asian and West Pacific regions in the U.S.’s absence. Then, with Japan in full control of the Pacific Basin, the U.S. and the other Allies would be forced to negotiate a settlement, giving Imperialist Japan the victory. Of course, that was only if everything with the attack on Pearl Harbor went smoothly, and that was no guarantee.
Commanders Fuchida and Genda’s plan of attack began by sending a six carrier task force all the way from Japan through the empty sea between Hawaii and the Aleutian Islands. Then, once the carrier force was in place, floater planes would be sent out to observe the Americans’ activities at Pearl Harbor and Lahaina Roads in order to determine which target would reap the most benefits for the Japanese. Once this information was gathered and delivered back to the carriers, the offensive would commence, which ultimately meant that timing was everything if the attack was to go smoothly. Additionally, the Japanese bombers were also equipped with specially adapted 16 inch naval shells, which were designed to pierce the armored decks of the U.S. battleships in port. The hope was that the naval shells would also detonate the powder magazines in the battleships, blowing the ships to pieces and making salvage impossible. Thus, even if the Japanese targeted Pearl Harbor, which had shallow ports that typically allowed for ships to be salvaged, the detonation of the ships’ powder magazines would blow them apart and make salvaging entirely useless. Collectively, all of these plans revealed just how meticulous the Japanese were in constructing their attack, leaving no detail left to chance. If they were going to be totally successful, they would need to operate on the element of surprise, and that meant planning for every possible setback along the way.
Though no one saw the attack at Pearl Harbor coming, everyone anticipated war in the Pacific by November 25th. The only question was, where? While the rest of the world expected war to break out in Indochina, the Dutch East Indies, and the Philippines, the Japanese knew that the next stage for battle was, in fact, Oahu, though the Japanese cleverly deployed 200 naval vessels into the southeast as a preamble to war, making for the perfect diversion. With political negotiations breaking down and war becoming more inevitable with every passing day, all major American commands in the Pacific received warnings that they should be prepared to fight. In spite of these warnings, however, only one person suspected that Pearl Harbor would be the target of the next Japanese attack.
When Admiral Husband Kimmel met with other generals and commanders in Oahu on November 27, the plan was to move aircraft from Pearl Harbor to Wake and Midway Islands in order to build up defenses there. Lieutenant James Mollison, however, was against the idea, saying that Japan had the capability of attacking Oahu and the aircraft should stay in case Oahu needed defending. Captain Horatio McMorris replied that while the Japanese could, hypothetically, attack Oahu, they had no motivation to do so. Despite McMorris’ avid reassurances that Oahu was safe, Admiral Kimmel did not feel so confident, and he chose to leave the aircraft where they were grounded in Pearl Harbor. Of course, Kimmel’s decision to keep the aircraft at Oahu ultimately resulted in more wreckage and total success for Japan’s attack, though Kimmel could never have predicted that result. Nothing else about protecting Pearl Harbor was mentioned following the meeting, even though several Japanese carrier ships were unaccounted for and the U.S. was still not sure where the Japanese would choose to attack. Unfortunately, Intelligence Bureaus were busy tracking the Japanese Navy in the south and did not have time to worry about two missing carrier groups, especially since those two carrier groups had actually been missing as many as twelve times during the war; one more time was no cause for concern. Additionally, the Intelligence Bureaus were struggling with a recent set of newly developed callsigns, which made their work time-consuming and meant they did not have time to investigate concerns for an unlikely attack at Oahu. Pearl Harbor was supposed to be a reliable supply for armies all over the Pacific, never the target for an attack or the cause of havoc and chaos. By the end of the year, however, Pearl Harbor would be both, leaving many military stations without supplies and putting a halt to most military operations in the Pacific.
Meanwhile, Japanese Vice-Admiral Chuichi Nagumo was headed for Hawaii with his strike fleet and Commanders Fuchida and Genda at his side. In spite of the commanders’ assurance that attacking on both fronts was necessary, Nagumo was still worried about the offensive. He was certain that the Americans would anticipate the Japanese attack at Pearl Harbor, resulting in heavy losses for Japan’s air fleet. Regardless of Nagumo’s concerns, however, six of Japan’s biggest aircraft carriers were steaming toward Oahu, planning to station themselves a mere 200 miles away from the Americans in the Pacific Ocean. The metaphorical cream-of-the-Japanese-aviation-crop was ready for battle, and even Nagumo knew that attacking Pearl Harbor was the next big step for Imperialist Japan. If Japan truly hoped to advance in the war and make considerable progress, attacking Pearl Harbor was a necessary choice, risk or not.
On December 3rd, a warning was sent to Kimmel’s Port Harbor Command, saying "...categoric and urgent instructions were sent yesterday to Japanese diplomatic and consular posts at Hong Kong, Singapore, Batavia, Manila, Washington and London to destroy most of their codes and ciphers at once and to burn all other important confidential and secret documents." Still, Pearl Harbor did not prepare for war, and American Vice Admiral William "Bull" Halsey took the aircraft carrier Enterprise out to Wake with a fleet of battleships, which were sent out to their exercise area while the Enterprise headed west with a heavy escort of cruisers and destroyers. Once it reached open seas, the Enterprise issued Battle Order Number One - “The Enterprise is now operating under war conditions . . .” - and Halsey believed that by the time his carrier returned to Pearl Harbor, Japan and the Allies would be at war. As it turned out, he was right. Little did he know, the warfront would be much closer to home than he anticipated.
Meanwhile, Kimmel had the U.S. battleships resting safely at the port in Pearl Harbor, knowing that there they could be protected from enemy air attack should any unexpected offensive occur. He also had the aircraft neatly lined up for observation, unfortunately mak
ing for a very easy target once the Japanese arrived. Though Kimmel’s plans were strategic had the base anticipated Japan’s arrival, their lack of preparation and total surprise made them sitting ducks when Japan did eventually attack Pearl Harbor. Additionally, the U.S. made the unfortunate decision to take the weekend of December 7th off, in spite of all the warnings and alerts that the Japanese would attack in the Pacific soon. Thus, all of Pearl Harbor was asleep when the Japanese awoke the morning of their offensive. As the leader of the torpedo bombers, Lt. Commander Shigeharu Murata, told Commander Fuchida, "The Honolulu radio plays soft music . . . everything is fine."
The first planes to attack were Itaya’s fighters, who targeted Kaneohe Naval Air Station seven minutes before the attack reached Pearl Harbor. Then, by 0615 the morning of December 7th, 1941, the first wave of the Japanese offensive, 183 aircraft in total, was launched in a record 15 minutes. With their meticulous planning and grueling labor already paying off, the Japanese army began the massive attack against Pearl Harbor that would have devastating results, effectively pitting Imperial Japan against the rest of the world. Despite their careful planning, however, Fuchida’s command for first positions resulted in near chaos, with both dive bombers and torpedo bombers assuming their first positions in the confusion of having two plans for initial attack. Though Fuchida was frustrated and worried that his meticulous planning was unravelling right before his eyes, he quickly realized how completely unaware the Americans really were, making the careful efforts of the Japanese almost entirely unnecessary. With no alert sounded, even after unidentified planes were sighted by radar, the Japanese had all the time in the world to launch their offensive and ensure they made use of all of their resources. This meant that the Japanese planes swept over their targets a few times before launching their weapons, which resulted in their targets being hit every time and that the Japanese offensive appeared to be larger than it actually was. It also meant that the Americans did have some time to recover and respond. Though the Japanese were shocked by how quickly the Americans responded after being a state of total repose, their efforts would still not be enough.
Japan’s first target in the offensive was Wheeler Field, the U.S. Army base on Oahu, which was followed by the U.S. Army’s air field, Hickam Field, and finally, the U.S. Navy field based on Ford Island. Thankfully, the U.S.’s carriers were not stationed at Pearl Harbor, which minimized some of the damage, but there were more than enough targets for the Japanese to hit. Following the initial wave of the attack, the Nakajima “Kate” torpedo bombers under Murata caused the worst destruction of the day, inflicting serious damage on the unprotected ships on Battleship Row. One of the battleships in port, the Nevada, managed to survive with damage from only one torpedo. This ship, the only one to have its machine guns manned, provided a reasonable defense for itself and prevented Japanese airplanes from getting too close, though, unfortunately, most of the other battleships were not so lucky. Then, in another fly-by, the Japanese bomber planes began dropping their loads on the ships, destroying what the torpedoes did not already hit. Of all the deaths suffered by the Americans in the attack, half of them were caused by the destruction of the Arizona, which exploded when its powder magazines were hit by a well-timed bomb. As the Arizona detonated in a devastating explosion, many of the crew died and the ship split in two, finally coming to rest at the bottom of the harbor. Then, when the Arizona’s hull finally settled, the ship broke the water line leading to Ford Island, crippling firefighting efforts and further frustrating the Americans’ attempts at defense. Before long, the Arizona was also pouring oil into the water, causing more fires and forcing the Americans to use the Tennessee’s fire hoses to keep the situation in check. With the entirety of their forces concentrated on salvaging as much as possible, the Americans had no time to prepare for a counter-offensive. The best they could do was hold down the fort and keep the fires at bay, waiting for the end to come.
Once the Japanese torpedo and high-level bombers had completed their missions, dive bombers and fighters swooped in to hit their own assigned target areas, perfectly executing the final stage of their first attack before retreating. The momentary peace at Pearl Harbor was not to last long, however, because before long a second wave of fighters hit, with 167 new aircraft sent in for renewed attack. It was during this second part of the fight that the Nevada attempted to escape, making a break for the open sea. Before the Nevada could get very far, however, the Japanese bombed her as well, doing everything they could to sink the ship in the hopes that it would paralyze the Americans for months. Though the Nevada did not make it to open sea, it did not sink entirely, and was gently grounded for later salvaging. Additionally, the Pennsylvania eventually managed to send up considerable flak, limiting the damage done by the Japanese on that ship. As for the other ships, many of them did not fare so well. That included the Shaw, whose front end disintegrated when fires on board finally reached the forward magazines in the front end of the ship. This ship’s demise became one of the most dramatic and most photographed event of the day. Thankfully, by 0930 the attacks had given way to sporadic strafing, and the worst of the attack on Pearl Harbor was over, though it wasn’t until 0945 that the last of the strafing planes left for their rendezvous point northwest of Oahu.
While the Americans awaited the return of the Japanese, doing the best they could to prepare for the invasion that was inevitable, the Japanese regrouped and awaited commands. Though Fuchida was thrilled with Japan’s success and believed that another attack was necessary in order to seal the fate of the U.S., Nagumo decided to call off a follow-up attack or invasion, believing that the Japanese had been lucky and should quit while they were ahead. Though they originally planned on hunting down the U.S.’s carriers, Nagumo had no intention of tempting fate and risking another operation. Though Fuchida was incensed by this decision, believing that the Japanese had not taken full advantage of the risk they took when they attacked Pearl Harbor, there was nothing to be done. The Japanese retreated, and the Americans were left to salvage the mess as best they could. By the end of the attack on Pearl Harbor, 2,403 Americans were killed, and the U.S. Pacific Fleet was officially in ruins.
In spite of the devastation of Pearl Harbor, later speculation of the attack revealed that in reality, the Japanese were simply delaying the inevitable; the Americans were a war machine that could not be stopped. Considering the amount of damage that the Japanese could have inflicted on the Americans, the destruction of Pearl Harbor was considerably salvageable and would actually facilitate repairs. Of the Americans’ battleships at port, only two of them were beyond saving, and then four of them were back at sea within two weeks of the attack. The reality of the situation was that Japan’s attack was little more than a kick to the hornet’s nest, which mostly just angered the U.S. and was more effective at mobilizing troops than any other tactic they had attempted. Therefore, despite the success of the Japanese attack at Pearl Harbor, the risk of the attack and its resulting effects likely outweighed its benefits. Regardless, the losses at Pearl Harbor were great for the U.S., and the memory of those who lost their lives in the attack will always be remembered. As President Franklin D. Roosevelt said, December 7th, 1941 was a “day that would live in infamy.”
The Destruction of Cologne
As the Allies gained power in the war and tides began to shift in their favor. They began developing new tactical fighting plans and techniques to push them ahead of the Axis powers once and for all. In one of the war’s greatest tactical maneuvers, Sir Arthur Harris led a 1,000 bomber raid over the German city of Cologne, wreaking havoc and destruction in ways previously not thought possible. When Sir Arthur Harris first approached Winston Churchill and Sir Charles Portal with his idea to successively bomb a German city with 1,000 bombers, the leaders were incredulous. Admittedly, Harris had plans for ensuring perfect unity among his bombers to avoid collisions and collateral damage, but successfully completing a mission of that size seemed impossible. However, Churchill
and Portal eventually approved of Harris’ idea, allowing him to go forward with the plan, so long as he could amass enough trained pilots and planes to pull off the offensive. Of course, accomplishing that feat would prove to be more of a challenge.
With his plan approved, Harris began searching for the resources he needed to successfully accomplish a full 1,000 bomber offensive. Unfortunately, Harris only ever worked with 400 planes, meaning that he would need to salvage a considerable number of aircraft from other areas of the British Air Force. Harris began by requesting planes from Bomber Command and Flying Training Command, which resulted in him acquiring 300 aircraft total. While Sir Philip Joubert of Coastal Command immediately provided 250 bombers, many of which had served in squadrons for Bomber Command, the leaders at Flying Training Command offered only 50 aircraft, and most of those planes were later found to be insufficiently equipped for night bombing. Unfortunately, only four Wellingtons were able to be culled from this source in the end, leaving Harris with far too few aircraft to achieve the 1,000 bombers he needed to succeed.
While Harris continued searching for more bombers to use, he began further detailing plans for the tactical aspect of the bombing. Eventually, the tactics Harris developed would become the basis for standard Bomber Command operations, with some elements remaining in use through the rest of the war. Harris’ main invention, the bomber stream, transformed the speed and efficiency of bomber tactics, allowing for a much more rapid attack than ever before. In the bomber stream, aircraft flew along a set route at the exact same speed to and from the target, with each plane allotted a height band and time slot in the hopes of minimizing collisions. Using the bomber stream not only meant increased efficiency and lessened collateral damage, it also meant that the aircraft would pass through fewer German radar night-fighter boxes. This would decrease the amount of possible interceptions for the bombers and would allow them to pass through the belt of boxes more quickly, so long as the raid was kept as short and succinct as possible. When it came to conducting a more rapid bomber raid, then, Harris was nothing if not insanely ambitious. Whereas most bomber raids for about 100 aircraft took around four hours and the record time was set at two hours for 234 aircraft at Lubeck, Harris wanted to achieve his 1,000 bomber raid in a mere 90 minutes. Though this goal was incredibly dangerous and encouraged far more midair collisions, Harris determined that the minimal time was necessary if all of his objectives were to be met. After all, Harris’ aim for the 1,000 bombing raid was to have his aircraft passed through the night-fighter boxes quickly, ensuring that they could then overtake the defensive flak at the target and cause enough fires from their high concentration of bombs that the fire department would be overwhelmed and unable to save the entire city from going up in flames. With these goals in mind, Harris was determined to do whatever it took to achieve them. Unfortunately, not everyone was on his side.
