There had been other magical exposition cities in the late nineteenth century, and there were more to come. Many echoed the same themes of civilization, nationhood, and globalized trade that had inspired the Pan-American Exposition. All together, they instructed and entertained, and, yes, provoked millions and millions of people.
By the end of the twentieth century, these massive fairs not only dropped in frequency but also shifted shape. While there was little change in the business aims of fairs, and, behind the scenes, corporate capital held its ground, swings in the social tide meant new sorts of displays. Ongoing struggles against imperialism, the civil rights movement, and other efforts for social justice meant a gradual end to displaying “types” of people. Celebrating the subjugation of animals and the planet also lost favor.
Expo ’74, a world’s fair in Spokane, Washington, reflected this fluctuating landscape. At first glance, the Spokane exposition sounded oddly like the Pan-American fair: a city host eager for development and investors, a waterfall as a central feature, and an exposition without a women’s pavilion. But it went in a new direction. Not only did it feature a grand African American pavilion, it also hosted a celebration of the state’s recent passage of the Equal Rights Amendment for women. Most striking was its focus on the environment. While it was accused of being a sellout to commercialism, and it lacked the backing of major environmental groups, it hosted serious conferences and exhibits focused on environmental concerns. The United States Pavilion even inscribed on its central wall a bold new message: THE EARTH DOES NOT BELONG TO MAN. MAN BELONGS TO THE EARTH.24
The Spokane fair, and others that succeeded it, showed us how things had changed since 1901. These expositions were, as William McKinley claimed just before he was killed, the timekeepers of progress. McKinley’s idea of progress—the triumph of big business, the success of the white man’s civilizing mission, the harnessing of the globe—was far removed from the meaning of progress that would prevail for subsequent generations.
But McKinley was right: These fantasylands were telling. Rainbow City, intended as a scripted and neatly schemed production, became an improvised performance—where the rich and the powerful, the poor and the desperate, the human and the animal, and the natural world, in all its beauty and fury, met in dynamic alchemy.
It was the supreme measure of a moment in time.
Acknowledgments
It is a pleasure to thank the many people who have made this book possible. At the heart of this project, of course, is the proud and resilient City of Buffalo, with its archives and local historians, and its friends and families.
The staff at the Buffalo and Erie County Public Library first introduced me to the Pan American Scrapbooks (before they were digitized) and to all the collections of the Grosvenor Room. Thank you, Charles Alaimo and Carol Pijacki, for your cheerful and patient support. At the Buffalo History Museum, which, as the former New York State Building, is a memorial to the Pan-American Exposition, Cynthia Van Ness reigns as Queen of the Archives, and she is as astute and knowledgeable as she is tirelessly helpful.
Independent scholar Susan Eck, with her remarkable website, has been hugely generous with her knowledge of all things Pan-American. From traipsing around the city looking for signs, to digging up old maps, to forwarding new materials, she has offered wonderful assistance. She deserves a gift basket as big as a house.
Mark Goldman, “Mr. Buffalo,” deserves special credit for not only introducing me to Jumbo II and his almost-demise but also for reintroducing me to the history of the city. Buffalo’s vibrancy in the twenty-first century owes a lot to Mark’s passion and commitment.
I thank Professor Michael Frisch, too, for insightful conversation and guidance and insight into the meaning of the Pan-American for Buffalo today.
For help with the history of Annie Taylor, I appreciate the good work and help of Dwight Whalen and the inspiration of Monica Wood.
For their assistance and advice, I am also grateful to Melissa Brown, Sandy Starks, Stanton Hudson, Steve Bell, Mary Rech Rockwell, and Brent Baird. Leslie Zemsky, one of the brightest lights of contemporary Buffalo, deserves buckets of roses.
And then there are the Gurneys: Susan and Nancy—the sisters I never had, who have offered me a home away from home, wherever they are, for seemingly forever, and who have been my most loyal cheerleaders. Jackie and Bill Gurney and Elizabeth and Sam Gurney are old friends whose kindness knows no bounds. Elizabeth provided introductions that only a dedicated Buffalonian, with a deep pride in her city, could offer.
At the other end of New York State, in Manhattan, two important people pushed this project to the finish line: Literary agent Jennifer Lyons deftly shepherded the work to its resting place with W. W. Norton, and senior editor Amy Cherry, with her seasoned eye and incisive pen (not to mention exuberant handwriting), improved the narrative tremendously. Any infelicities that exist are solely attributable to the stubbornness of the author. Working with Norton’s Remy Cawley was also a distinct pleasure, and copyeditor Kathleen Brandes deserves heartfelt applause for her astute and painstaking work.
Closer to home, Bates College generously granted me research support and travel funds to Buffalo and the United Kingdom, and departmental colleagues provided encouragement and cheer. Will Ash needs a medal for his patience, not to mention his skilled work with images. Students Madeleine McCabe, Hallie Posner, Hannah Gottlieb, Alicia Fannon, Anna Whetzle, and especially the traveling Rebecca Merten deserve many thanks. I am also grateful to my hometown public libraries in Yarmouth and Freeport, Maine, which provided me with soft chairs, hot tea, and, best of all, quiet.
Finally, my family. My ninety-two-year-old mother, the witty and clever author J. S. Borthwick, provided line-by-line editorial advice. Asked how they would like to be acknowledged, my children offered the following: My son Nick wants to be recognized as intelligent and loving and the favorite son. My son Malcolm wants to be recognized as intelligent and loving and the favorite son. My daughter, Louisa, would like to be honored as the favorite child. My daughter-in-law, Julie, too modest to write her own credits, merits recognition as one of the warmest and most spirited people I have ever known.
My husband, Rob Smith, provided life support on this project from day one. From New York to Georgia to Michigan to London, he helped me sleuth out stories of Pan-American characters, and he read drafts with good humor and insight. His steady encouragement, not to mention patience with curmudgeonly moods, deserves my deep and heartfelt gratitude.
Illustration Credits
Page numbers listed correspond to the print edition of this book. You can use your device’s search function to locate particular terms in the text.
Pages x–xi: Rainbow City at night. Source: The Latest and Best Views of the Pan-American Exposition (Buffalo: Robert Allan Reid, 1901). Photo courtesy of Susan Eck.
Page 13: Buffalo River with grain elevator and freighters. Collection of the Buffalo History Museum, used by permission.
Page 14: Lafayette Square. Source: One Hundred Views of the Pan-American Exposition, Buffalo, and Niagara Falls (Buffalo: Robert A. Reid, 1901).
Page 23: Map of the Pan-American Grounds. Image courtesy of Susan Eck.
Page 26: The East Esplanade at night. Collection of the Buffalo History Museum, used by permission.
Page 28: The North Midway. Source: C. D. Arnold, Official Views of Pan-American Exposition (Buffalo, 1901).
Page 31: Frank Charles Bostock. Source: Postcard advertisement, n.d. Private collection.
Page 34: Animals line up in front of Bostock’s arena. Source: C. D. Arnold, The Pan-American Exposition Illustrated (Buffalo, 1901).
Page 37: Chiquita. Source: Elmer Chickering Collection, Houghton Library, Harvard University.
Page 39: Bostock’s Main Attractions. Source: One Hundred Views of the Pan-American Exposition (Buffalo: Robert A. Reid, 1901).
Page 46: The Indian Congress. Source: Photographs of the Pan American Exposition Held in Buffalo M
ay 1, 1901 to Nov. 1, 1901 (Charles H. Williams viewbook). Reproduction by Permission of the Buffalo & Erie County Public Library, Buffalo, New York.
Page 48: Jumbo II arrives in Buffalo. Source: Buffalo Courier, August 4, 1901. Reproduction by Permission of the Buffalo & Erie County Public Library, Buffalo, New York.
Page 51: Pan-American Power Brokers. Sources (left to right): Courtesy of Susan Eck; Richard H. Barry, The True Story of the Assassination of President McKinley at Buffalo (Buffalo: Robert Allan Reid, 1901); One Hundred Views of the Pan-American Exposition, Buffalo, and Niagara Falls (Buffalo: Robert A. Reid, 1901).
Page 55: William and Ida McKinley. Collection of the Buffalo History Museum, used by permission.
Page 62: Frank Bostock’s invitation to President McKinley. Source: Richard H. Barry, Snap Shots on the Midway of the Pan-Am Expo (Buffalo: Robert Allan Reid, 1901).
Page 67: Leon Czolgosz, alias Fred Nieman. Collection of the Buffalo History Museum, used by permission.
Page 78: The Triumphal Bridge on Flag Day. Photographer unknown. Photo courtesy of Susan Eck.
Page 82: Stereographic view of crowds on President’s Day. Kilburn, B. W., photographer. “Crowds at the Temple of Music where President McKinley was assassinated, Pan American Exposition.” Stereograph. Littleton, NH: B. W. Kilburn, c. 1901. From Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/cph.3c17986/ (accessed February 25, 2016).
Page 84: President McKinley addresses the crowd, September 5. Collection of the Buffalo History Museum, used by permission.
Page 88: Jim Parker. Source: Richard H. Barry, The True Story of the Assassination of President McKinley at Buffalo (Buffalo: Robert Allan Reid, 1901).
Page 90 (left): Martha Wagenfuhrer. Courtesy of the Niagara Falls (NY) Public Library; (right): Section of the Niagara Escarpment. Rendering by Margaret Creighton and William Ash.
Page 98: Fairgoers wait near the Exposition Hospital. Source: Richard H. Barry, The True Story of the Assassination of President McKinley at Buffalo (Buffalo: Robert Allan Reid, 1901).
Page 104: Secretary George Cortelyou delivers medical bulletins. Source: Richard H. Barry, The True Story of the Assassination of President McKinley at Buffalo (Buffalo: Robert Allan Reid, 1901).
Page 110: Carlisle Graham and Maud Willard. Courtesy of the Niagara Falls (NY) Public Library.
Page 121: Mary Talbert. Collection of the Buffalo History Museum, used by permission.
Page 124 (left): On stage at the Old Plantation. Source: Photographs of the Pan American Exposition Held in Buffalo May 1, 1901 to Nov. 1, 1901 (Charles H. Williams viewbook). Reproduction by Permission of the Buffalo & Erie County Public Library, Buffalo, New York; (right): “Laughing” Ben Ellington with fellow performers. Source: Richard H. Barry, Snap Shots on the Midway of the Pan-Am Expo (Buffalo: Robert Allan Reid, 1901).
Page 131: McKinley’s recovery ribbon. Image courtesy of Heritage Auctions.
Page 138: Roosevelt talks with reporters. Collection of the Buffalo History Museum, used by permission.
Page 141: McKinley lies in state. Source: Richard H. Barry, The True Story of the Assassination of President McKinley at Buffalo (Buffalo: Robert Allan Reid, 1901).
Page 153: Geronimo and Wenona. Author’s collection.
Page 154: Fairgoers peer under the flap of a tepee. Collection of the Buffalo History Museum, used by permission.
Page 158: Lion wedding. Collection of the Buffalo History Museum, used by permission.
Page 165: Annie Taylor, barrel, and cat. Courtesy of the Niagara Falls (NY) Public Library.
Page 172: Mabel Barnes scrapbook excerpt. From Barnes, “Peeps at the Pan-American: an account of personal visits in the summer of 1901 from notes jotted down on the spot and put in permanent form during fourteen years.” Mss. W-119. Collection of the Buffalo History Museum, used by permission.
Page 184: Taylor inside barrel. Courtesy of the Niagara Falls (NY) Public Library.
Page 189: Taylor, dazed and triumphant. Courtesy of the Niagara Falls (NY) Public Library.
Page 195: Sham battle. Source: C. D. Arnold, The Pan-American Exposition Illustrated (Buffalo, 1901).
Page 204: Chiquita and Bostock. Source: Elmer Chickering Collection, Houghton Library, Harvard University.
Page 207: Darkest Africa. Source: C. D. Arnold, The Pan-American Exposition Illustrated (Buffalo, 1901).
Page 226: Mary Lord. Collection of the Buffalo History Museum, used by permission.
Page 240: Big Liz and baby. Source: Buffalo Times, September 29, 1901. Reproduction by Permission of the Buffalo & Erie County Public Library, Buffalo, New York
Page 242: Jack Bonavita and lions. “Bostock’s Trained Lions.” Hall Photograph (NY), 1903. From Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, https://www.loc.gov/item/2012645716/ (accessed February 26, 2016).
Page 245: Tony and Alice Woeckener (Chiquita). Author’s collection.
Page 250: Annie Taylor sells souvenirs. Courtesy of the Niagara Falls (NY) Public Library.
Page 258: Triumphal Bridge in ruins, June 1903. Collection of the Buffalo History Museum, used by permission.
Notes
NOTE ON SOURCES
This account is drawn from memoirs, legal and medical records, and scholarly literature. To a large extent, though, it is a story grounded in press accounts, and, as everybody knows, newspapers provide a good, but imperfect, window into the past. The big Buffalo papers saw eye-to-eye with business interests in the city, for instance, even while they differed politically, and they did not offer much detail on the concerns of working-class, African American, or immigrant communities. They also differed in their approach to accuracy. While a few Buffalo newspapers—especially the Buffalo Morning Express—took pride in “truth and accuracy,” others proudly printed embellishments. To the degree it is possible, this account favored the papers that applauded careful reporting, and, in other sources, looked for verification elsewhere. The truth of bygone days, though, as any historian knows, is a slippery thing.
Even as they provided somewhat obstructed views into historical events, the publishers, editors, and reporters described here deserve enormous credit. Not only could some journalists craft the most artful sentences imaginable; they also evoked scenes in ways both compelling and persuasive. On occasion, they also championed the underdog. The papers here were big boosters of the Pan-American Exposition and served as proud spokesmen for its backers and its ideals. Yet they knew a good story when they saw it. To the degree that this narrative discusses the interplay of power, then, and forecasts the social battles of the upcoming century, we must be grateful to the tireless, talented newsmen.
NEWSPAPER ABBREVIATIONS USED IN NOTES
Buffalo Commercial: Com
Buffalo Courier: Courier
Buffalo Enquirer: Enq
Buffalo Evening News: News
Buffalo Morning Express: Express
Buffalo Times: Times
PROLOGUE
1. Jumbo in the stadium: Mark Goldman, High Hopes: The Rise and Decline of Buffalo, New York (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983), 18–19; Courier, Nov. 10, 1901; Illustrated Buffalo Express, Nov. 10, 1901; Newark Advocate, Nov. 9, 1901; Charlotte Daily Observer, Nov. 12, 1901. Electricity and civilization: William S. Aldrich, “Mechanical and Electrical Features of the Pan-American Exposition,” Engineering Magazine 21 (April–September 1901): 842; Jürgen Martschukat, “‘The Art of Killing by Electricity’: The Sublime and the Electric Chair,” Journal of American History 89, no. 3(December 2002): 901. Animal King: Richard H. Barry, Snap Shots on the Midway of the Pan-Am Expo (Buffalo: Robert Allan Reid, 1901), 111. Latin America in expositions: Lisa Munro, “Investigating World’s Fairs: An Historiography,” Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 28 (2010): 80–94. Color scheme: C. Y. Turner, “The Pan-American Color Scheme,” The Independent 53 (April 25, 1901): 948–49. The vanishing world: Times, Sept. 8, 1901; John Grant and Ray Jones, Niagara Falls: An Int
imate Portrait (Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot, 2006), 87.
2. The grand age of fairs: Robert W. Rydell, All the World’s a Fair (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 2–3. With his groundbreaking work, Rydell launched a generation of scholarly work on these remarkable (and remarkably common) events. For excellent overviews of fair historiography and methodology, see James Gilbert, Whose Fair? Experience, Memory, and the History of the Great St. Louis Exposition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), esp. 1–36, 53–68; and Lisa Munro, “Investigating World’s Fairs: An Historiography,” Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 28 (2010): 80–94. New pocket money: Wisconsin Weekly Advocate, May 16, 1901. Convenient stopping-off place: Express, Jan. 23, 1899. Early popularity of fair: Enq, June 27, 1901; Thomas Leary and Elizabeth Sholes, Buffalo’s Pan-American Exposition (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 1998), 77. Critics: See, for example, comments made (in a generally favorable review) by William H. Hotchkiss, “The Pan-American on Dedication Day,” in The American Monthly Review of Reviews 23 (June 1901): 679; and Robert Grant, “Notes on the Pan-American Exposition,” Cosmopolitan (September 1901), http://panam1901.org/documents/cosmoarticle.html.
CHAPTER 1: RAINBOW CITY
1. The White City: See Erik Larson’s masterful narrative, The Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic, and Madness at the Fair That Changed America (New York: Crown Publishers, 2003).
2. Chicago’s numbers: A thorough discussion of visits versus numbers of visitors can be found in Gilbert, Whose Fair?, 14–16; Omaha exposition: W. A. Rodgers, “The Exposition at Omaha,” Harper’s Weekly, Oct. 8, 1898, quoted in David J. Peavler, “African Americans in Omaha and the 1898 Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition,” Journal of African American History 93 (Summer 2008): 337; Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, 124.
The Electrifying Fall of Rainbow City Page 25
