At first, Prussia had refused to join the Third Coalition, but after Napoleon began to reorganize the German states, Prussia reversed course. Acting quickly, Napoleon crushed the Prussian forces in two battles at Jena (YAY-nuh) and Auerstadt (OW-urr-shtaht) in October 1806 and then moved on to defeat the Russians, who had decided to reenter the fray, at Eylau (Y-low) and Friedland (FREET-lahnt) in June 1807. Napoleon’s Grand Army had defeated the Continental members of the coalition, giving him the opportunity to create a new European order.
NAPOLEON’S GRAND EMPIRE The Grand Empire was composed of three major parts: the French empire, a series of dependent states, and allied states (see Map 19.3). The French empire, the inner core of the Grand Empire, consisted of an enlarged France extending to the Rhine in the east and including the western half of Italy north of Rome. Dependent states included Spain, the Netherlands, the kingdom of Italy, the Swiss Republic, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and the Confederation of the Rhine (a union of all German states except Austria and Prussia). Allied states were those defeated by Napoleon and forced to join his struggle against Britain; they included Prussia, Austria, and Russia. Although the internal structure of the Grand Empire varied outside its inner core, Napoleon considered himself the leader of the whole: “Europe cannot be at rest except under a single head who will have kings for his officers, who will distribute his kingdom to his lieutenants.”
Within his empire, Napoleon demanded obedience, in part because he needed a common front against the British and in part because his growing egotism required obedience to his will. But as a child of the Enlightenment and the Revolution, Napoleon also sought acceptance everywhere of certain revolutionary principles, including legal equality, religious toleration, and economic freedom. As he explained to his brother Jerome, shortly after making him king of the new German state of Westphalia:
What the peoples of Germany desire most impatiently is that talented commoners should have the same right to your esteem and to public employments as the nobles, that any trace of serfdom and of an intermediate hierarchy between the sovereign and the lowest class of the people should be completely abolished. The benefits of the Code Napoléon, the publicity of judicial procedure, the creation of juries must be so many distinguishing marks of your monarchy… . What nation would wish to return under the arbitrary Prussian government once it had tasted the benefits of a wise and liberal administration? The peoples of Germany, the peoples of France, of Italy, of Spain all desire equality and liberal ideas. I have guided the affairs of Europe for many years now, and I have had occasion to convince myself that the buzzing of the privileged classes is contrary to the general opinion. Be a constitutional king.22
In the inner core and dependent states of his Grand Empire, Napoleon tried to destroy the old order. Nobility and clergy everywhere in these states lost their special privileges. He decreed equality of opportunity with offices open to talent, equality before the law, and religious toleration. This spread of French revolutionary principles was an important factor in the development of liberal traditions in these countries. These reforms have led some historians to view Napoleon as the last of the enlightened absolutists.
THE PROBLEM OF GREAT BRITAIN Like Hitler 130 years later, Napoleon hoped that his Grand Empire would last for centuries; like Hitler’s empire, it collapsed almost as rapidly as it had been formed. Two major reasons help explain this: the survival of Great Britain and the force of nationalism. Britain’s survival was due primarily to its seapower. As long as Britain ruled the waves, it was almost invulnerable to military attack. Although Napoleon contemplated an invasion of England and even collected ships for it, he could not overcome the British navy’s decisive defeat of a combined French-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in 1805. Napoleon then turned to his Continental System to defeat Britain. Put into effect between 1806 and 1807, it attempted to prevent British goods from reaching the European continent in order to weaken Britain economically and destroy its capacity to wage war. But the Continental System failed. Allied states resented the ever-tightening French economic hegemony; some began to cheat and others to resist, thereby opening the door to British collaboration. New markets in the eastern Mediterranean and in Latin America also provided compensation for the British. Indeed, by 1810, British overseas exports were approaching record highs.
MAP 19.3 Napoleon’s Grand Empire in 1810. Napoleon’s Grand Army won a series of victories against Austria, Prussia, and Russia that gave the French emperor full or partial control over much of Europe by 1807.
On the Continent, what is the overall relationship between distance from France and degree of French control, and how can you account for this?
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NATIONALISM A second important factor in the defeat of Napoleon was nationalism. This political creed had arisen during the French Revolution in the French people’s emphasis on brotherhood (fraternite) and solidarity against other peoples. Nationalism involved the unique cultural identity of a people based on a common language, religion, and national symbols. The spirit of French nationalism had made possible the mass armies of the revolutionary and Napoleonic eras. But in spreading the principles of the French Revolution beyond France, Napoleon inadvertently brought about a spread of nationalism as well. The French aroused nationalism in two ways: by making themselves hated oppressors, and thus arousing the patriotism of others in opposition to French nationalism, and by showing the people of Europe what nationalism was and what a nation in arms could do. The lesson was not lost on other peoples and rulers. A Spanish uprising against Napoleon’s rule, aided by British support, kept a French force of 200,000 pinned down for years.
Nationalist movements also arose in the German states, where a number of intellectuals advocated a cultural nationalism based on the unity of the German people. The philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte (yoh-HAHN got-LEEP FIKH-tuh) (1762–1814), who had at first welcomed the French Revolution for freeing the human spirit, soon became a proponent of a German national spirit radically different from that of France. Although philosophical voices like Fichte’s did little to overthrow the French, they did awaken a dream of German nationalism that would bear fruit later in the nineteenth century.
Francisco Goya, The Third of May 1808. After Napoleon imposed his brother Joseph on Spain as its king, the Spanish people revolted against his authority, and a series of riots broke out in Madrid. This painting by Francisco Goya shows the French response—a deliberate execution of Spanish citizens to frighten people into submission. Goya portrays the French troops as a firing squad, killing people (including a monk) reacting in terror. The peasant in the middle throws out his arms in a gesture reminiscent of crucifixion. Goya painted many scenes depicting the horrors of war in Napoleonic Spain.
Museo del Prado, Madrid//© Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY
In Prussia, feeling against Napoleon led to a serious reform of the old order that had been so easily crushed by the French emperor. As one Prussian officer put it, the Prussians must learn from the French example and “place their entire national energies in opposition to the enemy.” Under the direction of Baron Heinrich von Stein (HYN-rikh fun SHYTN) and later Prince Karl von Hardenberg (KARL fun HAR-den-berk), Prussia embarked on a series of political and military reforms, including the abolition of serfdom, election of city councils, and creation of a larger standing army. Prussia’s reforms, instituted as a response to Napoleon, enabled it to again play an important role in European affairs.
The Fall of Napoleon
Napoleon once said, “If I had experienced pleasure, I might have rested; but the peril was always in front of me, and the day’s victory was always forgotten in the pre-occupation with the necessity of winning a new victory on the morrow.”23 Never at rest, Napoleon decided in 1812 to invade Russia. It was the beginning of his downfall, but Russia’s defection from the Continental System had left him with little choice. Although aware of the risks in invading such a large country, Napoleon also knew that if the Russians were allowed to challeng
e the Continental System unopposed, others would soon follow suit. In June 1812, Napoleon’s Grand Army of more than 600,000 men entered Russia. Napoleon’s hopes for victory depended on quickly meeting and defeating the Russian armies, but the Russian forces refused to give battle and retreated hundreds of miles while torching their own villages and countryside to prevent Napoleon’s army from finding food and forage. Heat and disease also took their toll of the army, and the vast space of Russian territory led many troops to desert. When the Russians did stop to fight at Borodino, Napoleon’s forces won an indecisive and costly victory. Forty-five thousand Russian troops were killed; the French lost 30,000 men, but they had no replacements nearby. When the remaining troops of the Grand Army arrived in Moscow, they found the city ablaze. Lacking food and supplies, Napoleon abandoned Moscow late in October and made the “Great Retreat” across Russia in terrible winter conditions. Only 40,000 troops managed to straggle back to Poland in January 1813. This military disaster then led to a war of liberation all over Europe, culminating in Napoleon’s defeat in April 1814.
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CHRONOLOGY The Napoleonic Era, 1799–1815
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Napoleon as first consul
1799–1804
Concordat with Catholic Church
1801
Peace of Amiens
1802
Emperor Napoleon
1804–1815
Battle of Ulm (defeat of Austria)
1805
Battle of Austerlitz (defeat of Russia)
1805
Battle of Trafalgar (naval defeat of Napoleon’s forces)
1805
Battles of Jena and Auerstadt(defeat of Prussia)
1806
Continental System established
1806
Battles of Eylau and Friedland (defeat of Russia)
1807
Invasion of Russia
1812
War of liberation
1813–1814
Exile to Elba
1814
Battle of Waterloo; exile to Saint Helena
1815
Death of Napoleon
1821
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The defeated emperor of the French was allowed to play ruler on the island of Elba, off the coast of Tuscany, while the Bourbon monarchy was restored to France in the person of Louis XVIII, brother of the executed king. But the new king had little support, and Napoleon, bored on Elba, slipped back into France. When troops were sent to capture him, Napoleon opened his coat and addressed them: “Soldiers of the fifth regiment, I am your Emperor… . If there is a man among you would kill his Emperor, here I am!” No one fired a shot. Shouting “Vive l’Empéreur! Vive l’Empéreur,” the troops went over to his side, and Napoleon entered Paris in triumph on March 20, 1815.
The powers that had defeated him pledged once more to fight this person they called the “Enemy and Disturber of the Tranquility of the World.” Having decided to strike first at his enemies, Napoleon raised yet another army and moved to attack the nearest allied forces stationed in Belgium. At Waterloo on June 18, Napoleon met a combined British and Prussian army under the duke of Wellington and suffered a bloody defeat. This time, the victorious allies exiled him to Saint Helena, a small, forsaken island in the South Atlantic. Only Napoleon’s memory would continue to haunt French political life.
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CHAPTER SUMMARY
The late eighteenth century was a time of dramatic political transformation. Revolutionary upheavals, beginning in North America and continuing in France, produced movements for political liberty and equality. The documents created by these revolutions, the Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, embodied the fundamental ideas of the Enlightenment and set forth a liberal political agenda based on a belief in popular sovereignty—the people as the source of political power— and the principles of liberty and equality. Liberty meant, in theory, freedom from arbitrary power as well as the freedom to think, write, and worship as one chose. Equality meant equality in rights and equality of opportunity based on talent rather than birth. In practice, equality remained limited; men who owned property had great opportunities for voting and officeholding, and there was certainly no equality between men and women.
The leaders of France’s liberal revolution during the National and Legislative Assemblies between 1789 and 1791 were men of property, both bourgeois and noble, but they were assisted by commoners, both sans-culottes and peasants. In this first phase of the revolution, the old order was demolished as a new constitution established a limited constitutional monarchy. Yet, despite the hopes of the men of property, the liberal revolution was not the end of the revolution. The decision of the revolutionaries to go to war with European monarchs who opposed the revolution “revolutionized the revolution,” opening the door to a more radical, democratic, and violent stage between 1792 and 1795 under the National Convention led by the Committee of Public Safety. During this phase, revolutionary courts persecuted those not sufficiently supportive of the revolutionary cause,creating the in famous Reign of Terror. The excesses of the Reign of Terror, however, led to a reaction and a government headed by a five-member Directory, which governed from 1795 to 1799. But it satisfied neither the radicals nor the royalists. In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew this government and established first the Consulate and then a new monarchy with himself as emperor. Napoleon, while diminishing freedom by establishing order and centralizing the government, shrewdly preserved equality of rights and the opening of careers to talent and integrated the bourgeoisie and old nobility into a new elite of property owners.
The French Revolution defined the modern revolutionary concept. No one had foreseen or consciously planned the upheaval that began in 1789, but after 1789, “revolutionaries” knew that mass uprisings could succeed in overthrowing unwanted governments. The French Revolution became the classic political and social model for revolution. At the same time, the liberal and national political ideals created by the Revolution and spread through Europe by Napoleon’s conquests dominated the political landscape of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
CHAPTER TIMELINE
CHAPTER REVIEW
Upon Reflection
How was France changed by the revolutionary events of 1789 to 1792, and who benefited the most from these changes?
Why did the French Revolution enter a radical phase, and what did that radical phase accomplish?
In what ways did Napoleon’s policies reject the accomplishments of the French Revolution? In what ways did his policies strengthen the Revolution’s accomplishments?
Key Terms
revolution
old order
sans-culottes
Girondins
Mountain
nation in arms
de-Christianization
prefects
Continental system
nationalism
Suggestions for Further Reading
GENERAL WORKS A well-written introduction to the French Revolution can be found in W. Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 2003). On the entire revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, see O. Connelly, The French Revolution and Napoleonic Era, 3rd ed. (Fort Worth, Tex., 2000). A brief work is J. D. Popkin et al., A Short History of the French Revolution, 4th ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 2005). Two comprehensive reference works are S. F. Scott and B. Rothaus, eds., Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution, 2 vols. (Westport, Conn., 1985), and F. Furet and M. Ozouf, A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution, trans. A. Goldhammer (Cambridge, Mass., 1989). See also G. Kates, ed., The French Revolution, 2nd ed. (London, 2006).
EARLY YEARS OF THE REVOLUTION The origins of the French Revolution are examined in W. Doyle, Origins of the French Revolution, 3rd ed. (Oxford, 1999), and P. R. Cambell, ed., Origins of the French Revolution (New York, 2006), a collection of essays. On the early years of the Revolution, see M. Ken
nedy, The Jacobin Clubs in the French Revolution: The First Years (Princeton, N.J., 1982); N. Hampson, Prelude to Terror (Oxford, 1988); and T. Tackett, Becoming a Revolutionary (Princeton, N.J., 1996), on the deputies to the National Assembly. For interesting insight into Louis XVI and French society, see T. Tackett, When the King Took Flight (Cambridge, Mass., 2003).
RADICAL REVOLUTION Important works on the radical stage of the French Revolution include D. Andress, The Terror: The Merciless War for Freedom in Revolutionary France (New York, 2005); R. R. Palmer, Twelve Who Ruled (New York, 1965), a classic; and R. Cobb, The People’s Armies (London, 1987). For a biography of Robespierre, one of the leading figures of this period, see R. Scurr, Fatal Purity: Robespierre and the French Revolution (New York, 2006). The importance of the revolutionary wars in the radical stage of the Revolution is underscored in T. C. W. Blanning, The French Revolutionary Wars, 1787–1802 (New York, 1996). On the Directory, see M. Lyons, France Under the Directory (Cambridge, 1975).
WOMEN On the role of women in revolutionary France, see O. J. Hufton, Women and the Limits of Citizenship in the French Revolution (Toronto, 1992), and J. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca, N.Y., 1988).
NAPOLEON The best biography of Napoleon is S. Englund, Napoleon: A Political Life (New York, 2004). Also valuable are G. J. Ellis, Napoleon (New York, 1997); M. Lyons, Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution (New York, 1994); and the massive biographies by F. J. McLynn, Napoleon: A Biography (London, 1997), and A. Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte (New York, 1997). See also I. Woloch, Napoleon and His Collaborators: The Making of a Dictatorship (New York, 2002), and A. I. Grab, Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe (New York, 2003), on Napoleon’s Grand Empire. On Napoleon’s wars, see O. Connelly, Blundering to Glory: Napoleon’s Military Campaigns, 3rd ed. (Lanham, Md., 2006), and D. A. Bell, The First Total War: Napoleon’s Europe and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It (Boston, 2007).
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