21. “Negro’s Fight Must Be Nonviolent, King Says,” Louisville Times, April 19, 1961.
22. “40 Negro Sit-inners Arrested Downtown,” Louisville Times, April 19, 1961.
23. Branch, Parting the Waters, 271–84.
24. K’Meyer, Gateway, 87–88; Wade Hall, The Rest of the Dream: The Black Odyssey of Lyman Johnson (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1988), 134–35.
25. Hall, Rest of the Dream, 134–35; “Negroes Ask Progress on Integration,” Louisville Times, February 28, 1961.
26. K’Meyer, Gateway, 81.
27. Hall, Rest of the Dream, 137–38.
28. F. W. Woolsey, “The Lunch-counter Revolution,” Louisville Courier-Journal Magazine, March 30, 1980.
29. K’Meyer, Gateway, 105.
30. Jim Morrissey, “Integration Timetable,” Louisville Courier-Journal, June 30, 1963.
31. Ibid.; K’Meyer, Gateway, 107–10.
32. “Valley Station,” in Kleber, Encyclopedia of Louisville, 909.
33. Woolsey, “Lunch-counter Revolution.”
Chapter 9
1. Margaret Merrick, “Public Housing,” in The Encyclopedia of Louisville, John E. Kleber, ed. (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2000), 734.
2. Details of Riccardo X’s life from author interviews with Riccardo X.
3. Gerald Henry, “Renewal Affects 5 Pct. Of City; More to Come?” Louisville Courier-Journal, February 19, 1967.
4. “Louisvillians Invited to View City Slums,” Louisville Courier-Journal, March 20, 1957.
5. “Little Africa,” in Kleber, Encyclopedia of Louisville, 523.
6. “Louisvillians Invited”; Redevelopment Termed Urgent,” Louisville Courier-Journal, June 14, 1959.
7. Sheldon Shafer, “Changed City Is Left Behind by Chief of Urban Renewal,” Louisville Courier-Journal, April 2, 1978.
8. Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 210–13.
9. Ibid., 195–215; Douglas Massey and Susan Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 54–55.
10. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 217.
11. Massey and Denton, American Apartheid, 55.
12. Robert Hermann, “Land Buying to Being in July for 2 Downtown Renewal Areas,” Louisville Courier-Journal, March 28, 1981.
13. Shafer, “Changed City.”
14. Rob Deitel, “West Downtown Took 2 Decades,” Louisville Times, February 7, 1985.
15. Bert Emke, “Urban Renewal: Friend or Foe of the Poor?” Louisville Times, September 12, 1969.
16. Deitel, “West Downtown.”
17. “Clearing the Way for West End Renewal,” Louisville Courier-Journal, January 21, 1965.
18. Emke, “Urban Renewal.”
19. Author interview with Norbert Logsdon, June 15, 2009; Catherine Fosl and Tracy E. K’Meyer, Freedom on the Border: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement in Kentucky (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2009), 131.
20. James Braun, “Urban Renewal,” in Kleber, Encyclopedia of Louisville, 905.
21. David Remnick, King of the World (New York: Vintage Books, 1999), 81–82.
22. Ibid., 87–88; Muhammad Ali, Soul of a Butterfly: Reflections on Life’s Journey (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004), 11.
23. Remnick, King of the World, 81–96.
24. Ali, Soul of a Butterfly, 34–39.
25. Remnick, King of the World, 105–6.
26. Ibid., 101, 106; Ali, Soul of a Butterfly, 29–32.
27. Tilford-Weathers, A History of Louisville Central High School, 16–23.
28. Merrick, “Public Housing,” 734.
29. “King, Alfred Daniel Williams,” in Kleber, Encyclopedia of Louisville, 484.
30. Clayborne Carson, foreword to The Black Panthers Speak, Philip Foner, ed. (Boston, MA: Da Capo Press, 2002), x-xii.
31. “Oakland Officer Slain in Black Panther Clash,” Los Angeles Times, October 29, 1967.
32. Remnick, King of the World, 205–10.
33. Ali, Soul of a Butterfly, 66.
34. Remnick, King of the World, 205–10.
35. Ibid., 287.
36. Tracy E. K’Meyer, Civil Rights in the Gateway to the South (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2009), 179.
37. Ibid., 179–85.
38. Ibid., 187; “Economic Equality Is Proving Elusive,” Louisville Courier-Journal, May 29, 1988.
39. K’Meyer, Gateway, 187.
40. Ibid., 188–89.
41. Ibid.
42. Carmichael later said he had not been turned away at the airport and denied that he had planned on coming to the rally at all: ibid., 189; Anne Moore, “Carmichael Rumors Helped Start Riots,” Louisville Courier-Journal, June 16, 1968.
43. K’Meyer, Gateway, 188; “Schmied, Kenneth Allen,” in Kleber, Encyclopedia of Louisville, 789.
44. “Schmied,” Kleber, Encyclopedia of Louisville, 789; K’Meyer, Gateway, 103, 17–129.
45. “Rioting Breaks Out in Louisville,” Louisville Courier-Journal, May 28, 1968.
46. Ibid.
47. Ibid.
48. David Diaz Jr., “Somebody Threw a Bottle—Then ‘Oh Baby . . . It’s Really Happening,’ ” Louisville Times, May 18, 1968.
49. Ibid.
50. Paul M. Branzburg, “Looters Took Goods—and Revenge,” Louisville Courier-Journal, June 16, 1968.
51. Moore, “Carmichael Rumors”; K’Meyer, Gateway, 190; “Protesters Ask Removal of Guard,” Louisville Courier-Journal, May 29, 1968.
52. “Riots Flare Anew in Louisville’s West End,” Louisville Courier-Journal, May 29, 1968.
53. “Restraint Marred by Bloodshed,” Louisville Courier-Journal, June 16, 1968.
54. Branzburg, “Looters Took”; John Finley, “Anger, Frustration Fanned Riots Despite Carnival Spirit,” Louisville Courier-Journal, June 16, 1968.
55. “Cortez, 5 Others Indicted as Plotters,” Louisville Courier-Journal, October 18, 1968.
56. Rudy Johnson, “Negroes in Louisville Are Still Tense and Bitter after May 28 Riot That Left 2 Dead,” New York Times, June 17, 1968.
Chapter 10
1. Details of Joyce Spond’s life from author interview with Joyce Spond, April 14, 2010.
2. “Urban and Rural Population: 1900 to 1990,” table, US Census Bureau, October 1995, http://www.census.gov/.
3. Edward Bennett and Carolyn Gatz, Louisville, Kentucky: A Restoring Prosperity Case Study (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, September 2008), 12, http://www.brookings.edu/.
4. C. Vann Woodward, “The Search for Southern Identity,” in Myth and Southern History: Vol. 2, The New South, Patrick Gerster and Nicholas Cords, eds. (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 121; Matthew D. Lassiter and Kevin M. Kruse, “The Bulldozer Revolution: Suburbs and Southern History Since World War II,” Journal of Southern History 75, no. 3 (2009): 691–706.
5. Douglas Massey and Susan Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 148–50; Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
6. James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 124.
7. Rick Perlstein, Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America (New York: Scribner, 2008), 239.
8. Otto Kerner, Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1968).
9. Patterson, Brown v. Board, 138–39.
10. James Coleman, Equality of Educational Opportunity, (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1966).
11. Davison M. Douglas, Reading, Writing and Race: The Desegregation of the Charlotte Schools (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 125.
12. Green v. County School Board of New Kent County, 391 US 430 (1968).
13. Douglas, Reading, Writing and Race, 128.
14. Ibid.
15. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., Robert Kennedy and His Times (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2002), 778–800; Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988).
16. Perlstein, Nixonland, 341–43, 431–35; Joseph Alsop, “Southern Strategy of Nixon Is Seen Likely to Succeed,” Washington Post, August 12, 1968; Matthew Lassiter, The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007).
17. Philip E. Converse et al., “Stability and Change in 1960: A Reinstating Election,” American Political Science Review 55, no. 2 (1961): 269–80; Mark Stern, “John F. Kennedy and Civil Rights: From Congress to the Presidency,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 19, no. 4 (1989): 797–823.
18. Perlstein, Nixonland, 202, 237–41, 129, 350–51.
19. Nixon in Charlotte: “School Integration in the Election,” Chicago Tribune, September 16, 1968.
20. Details of Swann litigation: Douglas, Reading, Writing and Race, 107–29.
21. Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, 402 US 1 (1971).
Chapter 11
1. Peter Irons, Jim Crow’s Children: The Broken Promise of the Brown Decision (New York: Penguin Books, 2002), 225.
2. Mike McKinney, “Central High Must Be Desegregated, City Told by U.S.,” Louisville Courier-Journal, December 18, 1969.
3. Ibid.
4. Charles Walden, Southern Cities—Except Louisville—Desegregate Schools: A Report on Public Schools in Louisville, Kentucky and Major Southern Cities, 1968 and 1971 (Louisville: Commission on Human Rights, Commonwealth of Kentucky, May 1972), http://www.eric.ed.gov/.
5. McKinney, “Central High.”
6. Thelma Cayne Tilford-Weathers, A History of Louisville Central High School, 1882–1982 (Louisville, KY: Central High School Alumni Association, 1982), 47.
7. Edward Bennett, “City Schools May Get Desegregation Order,” Louisville Times, June 26, 1971.
8. Rick Perlstein, Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America (New York: Scribner, 2008), 421, 459; Gary Orfield, “Congress, the President, and Anti-busing Legislation, 1966–1974,” Journal of Law and Education 81 (1975).
9. Tilford-Weathers, A History of Louisville Central High School, 47
10. Ibid., 31–34.
11. Tilford-Weathers, A History of Louisville Central High School, 33.
12. McKinney, “Central High.”
13. Tilford-Weathers, A History of Louisville Central High School, 47
14. Orfield, “Congress,” 133.
15. “Can New Plan for Central High Become Model for the Nation?” Louisville Courier-Journal, April 10, 1970.
16. “A Chronology of Major Steps in Busing Case,” Louisville Times, June 17, 1978.
17. “School Bias Suit Names Louisville,” Louisville Courier-Journal, June 23, 1972.
18. Judy Rosenfield, “Desegregation Suit: The Original 13,” Louisville Times, July 24, 1975.
19. Linda Raymond, “U.S. Court Asked to Order City School Desegregation,” Louisville-Times, June 22, 1972.
20. Mike McKinney, “City Schools Accept Bid to Talk County Merger,” Louisville Courier-Journal, December 18, 1969.
21. “The Busing Issue Boils Over,” Time, February 28, 1972.
22. “Anti-busing Statement Triggers Congressional Criticism of Nixon,” Baltimore African-American, August 14, 1971.
23. R. W. Apple, “Wallace Again Emerging as Key Campaign Figure,” New York Times, February 20, 1972; Martin Waldron, “Nixon Margin Big; Governor Captures 75 of 81 Delegates in Dramatic Victory,” New York Times, March 15, 1972.
24. Roger Wilkins, “To Begin the Birth of a New Nation,” Washington Post, March 16, 1972.
25. Herbert H. Denton, “Blacks Vote Against Busing,” Washington Post, March 13, 1972.
26. Leonard Pardue, “Parents Oppose School Racial-Balance Plan,” Louisville Times, May 28, 1968.
27. David Frum, How We Got Here: The 70’s—The Decade that Brought You Modern Life—For Better or Worse (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 253.
28. Jean Howerton, “Negro-Pupil Gains Since ’56 Reported; Whites Also Up Since Integration,” Louisville Courier-Journal, March 16, 1980.
29. Johnson and Quay Glass, “Western Louisville: What Does It Think of Busing?” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 27, 1975.
30. James Nolan, “School Desegregation Case Begins,” Louisville Courier-Journal, December 2, 1972.
31. Charles R. Babcock, “National Debate Begins on Court-Ordered Busing,” Louisville Courier-Journal, October 29, 1975.
32. Details of Judge James F. Gordon’s life from interview with Ethel S. White, December 3, 1989, for the Jefferson County Oral History Project, stored in the University of Louisville Archives and Records Center; Jim Adams and Leslie Scanlon, “The Busing Judge: A Reminiscence,” Louisville Courier-Journal, 1980.
33. Linda Raymond, “School-desegregation Suits Are Dismissed,” Louisville Times, March 8, 1973.
34. Richard Nixon, “Address to the Nation on Equal Educational Opportunities and School Busing,” March 16, 1972, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/.
35. Irons, Jim Crow’s Children, 236–40; Gary Orfield and Susan Eaton, eds., Dismantling Desegregation: The Quiet Reversal of Brown v. Board of Education (New York: New Press, 1996), 10–11.
36. Gary Orfield, “Segregated Housing and School Resegregation,” in Orfield, Dismantling Desegregation, 315.
37. Irons, Jim Crow’s Children, 241.
38. “U.S. Court Orders Desegregation Plan for 3 School Districts in Jefferson County,” Louisville Times, December 28, 1973.
39. James Nolan, “Judge Orders City and County to Combine Their School Desegregation Plans by Tuesday,” Louisville Courier-Journal, July 20, 1974.
40. John Finley, “Judge’s Decision for a ‘Plan X’ Surprises Few,” Louisville Courier-Journal, July 20, 1974.
41. James Nolan, “Louisville-Area School Plan Canceled as Most Cross-district Busing Barred,” Louisville Courier-Journal, July 26, 1974; Milliken v. Bradley, 418 US 717 (1974), http://supreme.justia.com/.
42. Irons, Jim Crow’s Children, 242–49.
43. “Any Busing Here Is Stalled Past Oct. 14,” Louisville Times, August 9, 1974.
44. Albert Sehlstedt Jr., “Ford Bid in 1976 Probable; Education Bill, with Busing Curb, Is Signed,” Baltimore Sun, August 22, 1974.
45. Orfield, “Congress,” 131; 133–34.
46. Ronald P. Formisano, Boston against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991); “This Is Testing Our Sense of Humid,” Louisville Courier-Journal, July 20, 1974.
47. James Nolan, “Racial Balance of City’s Schools Tips to Blacks,” Louisville Courier-Journal, October 17, 1972; Edward Bennett, “City Schools May Get Desegregation Order,” Louisville Times, June 28, 1971; “Pupils in Integrated Schools Gain Here,” Louisville Courier-Journal, October 2, 1957.
48. David McGinty, “Local Desegregation Battle to Resume,” Louisville Times, October 14, 1974.
49. Dennis Polite, “Desegregation Order to Be Appealed,” Louisville Times, January 7, 1975.
50. David McGinty, “Judge Gordon to Draft Own Plan to Desegregate Schools,” Louisville Times, July 18, 1975; David McGinty, “Gordon’s Integration Plan Will Bus 23,000,” Louisville Times, July 23, 1975.
51. “Justice Blackmun Denies SOCS Attorneys’ Plea to Delay Busing Order,” Louisville Times, September 4, 1975; Linda Stahl, “Powell Is Asked to Stay Order on School Busing,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 29, 1975.
52. Larry Werner, “Hotline: Volunteers Answer Questions on Busing,” Louisville Courier-Journal, July 31, 1975.
53. Mike Brown, “As the ‘General’ of a Small Army, There Ar
e Few Free Moments for . . . an Antibusing Leader,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 13, 1975.
54. Larry Werner and John Filiatreau, “85 White Students State ‘Sit-in,’ ” Louisville Courier-Journal, November 7, 1975.
55. Formisano, Boston Against Busing, 114, 115, 143, 150, 153.
56. Jim Adams, “Concerned Parents Rally Canceled for Prayer Vigil,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 18, 1975; Jim Adams, “Downtown Protest Attracts 2,500,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 5, 1975.
Chapter 12
1. John Flynn, “ ‘The South End Is a Feeling, Not a Place,’ ” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 14, 1975; Dick Kaukas, “Women Stage Okolona March against Busing,” Louisville Courier-Journal, October 10, 1975.
2. Jim Adams, “Downtown Protest Attracts 2,500,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 5, 1975.
3. “Protesters Delay Buses at Fairdale,” Louisville Times, September 5, 1975.
4. “Dozens Hurt, 192 Arrested in Riots,” Louisville Times, September 6, 1975.
5. Paul Bulleit, “Slingshot Defendant Acquitted,” Louisville Courier-Journal, March 31, 1976.
6. “Ballard High Principal Has Suspended 20 Black Students Since Monday,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 11, 1975.
7. “Rumor of Rapes False, Six School Principals Say,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 11, 1975.
8. “How Did the Black Community Handle First Seven Days of School Desegregation?” Louisville Defender, September 11, 1975.
9. Ben Johnson, “Small Woman Shouts Loudly on Behalf of Black Students,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 5, 1975.
10. Johnson and Quay Glass, “Western Louisville: What Does It Think of Busing?” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 27, 1975.
11. “Black Students Say the Hate Was Unexpected,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 11, 1975.
12. Ira Simmons, “The Whitening of Central: Black Students Feel It Isn’t ‘Their’ School Anymore,” Louisville Times, 1976.
13. Thelma Cayne Tilford-Weathers, A History of Louisville Central High School, 1882–1982 (Louisville, KY: Central High School Alumni Association, 1982), 34.
14. “Central Was All We Had,” Louisville Courier-Journal, June 27, 1982; Tilford-Weathers, A History of Louisville Central High School, 49.
15. Simmons, “The Whitening of Central.”
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