SPQR XIII: The Year of Confusion

by John Maddox Roberts

  A subfamily of a gens is the stirps. Stirps is an anthropological term. It is similar to the Scottish clan system, where the family name “Ritchie” for instance, is a stirps of the Clan MacIntosh. The cognomen gave the name of the stirps, i.e., Caius Julius Caesar. Caius of the stirps Caesar of gens Julia.

  The name of the family branch (cognomen) was frequently anatomical: Naso (nose), Ahenobarbus (bronzebeard), Sulla (splotchy), Niger (dark), Rufus (red), Caesar (curly), and many others. Some families did not use cognomens. Mark Antony was just Marcus Antonius, no cognomen.

  Other names were honorifics conferred by the Senate for outstanding service or virtue: Germanicus (conqueror of the Germans), Africanus (conqueror of the Africans), or Pius (extraordinary filial piety).

  Freed slaves became citizens and took the family name of their master. Thus the vast majority of Romans named, for instance, Cornelius would not be patricians of that name, but the descendants of that family’s freed slaves. There was no stigma attached to slave ancestry.

  Adoption was frequent among noble families. An adopted son took the name of his adoptive father and added the genetive form of his former nomen. Thus when Caius Julius Caesar adopted his great-nephew Caius Octavius, the latter became Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus.

  All these names were used for formal purposes such as official documents and monuments. In practice, nearly every Roman went by a nickname, often descriptive and rarely complimentary. Usually it was the Latin equivalent of Gimpy, Humpy, Lefty, Squint-eye, Big Ears, Baldy, or something of the sort. Romans were merciless when it came to physical peculiarities.

  fasces A bundle of rods bound around with an ax projecting from the middle. They symbolized a Roman magistrate’s power of corporal and capital punishment and were carried by the lictors who accompanied the curule magistrates, the Flamen Dialis (see priesthoods), and the proconsuls and propraetors who governed provinces.

  First Citizen In Latin: Princeps. Originally the most prestigious senator, permitted to speak first on all important issues and set the order of debate. Augustus, the first emperor, usurped the title in perpetuity. Decius detests him so much that he will not use either his name (by the time of the writing it was Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus) or the honorific Augustus, voted by the toadying Senate. Instead he will refer to him only as the First Citizen. Princeps is the origin of the modern word “prince.”

  forum An open meeting and market area.

  freedman A manumitted slave. Formal emancipation conferred full rights of citizenship except for the right to hold office. Informal emancipation conferred freedom without voting rights. In the second or at least third generation, a freedman’s descendants became full citizens.

  frigidarium The cold-plunge pool at the baths.

  genius loci The spirit of a particular place. An altar to the genius loci was typically a squat pillar with a serpent wrapped around it.

  gravitas The quality of seriousness.

  gymnasium Roman exercise facilities. In Rome they were often an adjunct to the baths.

  ides The fifteenth of March, May, July, and October; the thirteenth of the remaining months.

  imperium The ancient power of kings to summon and lead armies, to order and forbid, and to inflict corporal and capital punishment. Under the Republic, the imperium was divided among the consuls and praetors, but they were subject to appeal and intervention by the tribunes in their civil decisions and were answerable for their acts after leaving office. Only a dictator had unlimited imperium.

  impluvium The pool of water in the atrium of a house.

  insula, pl. insulae Large blocks of multistory tenement housing (literally meaning “island”).

  Lapis Niger A very ancient monument in the Forum, consisting of a block of basalt carved with words in extremely archaic Latin. It was already ancient during the late Republic and only a few words were recognizable. It bears to this day the oldest example of written Latin.

  lares The household gods, whose altar was usually in the atrium.

  legion Legions formed the fighting force of the Roman army. Through its soldiers, the Empire was able to control vast stretches of territory and people. They were known for their discipline, training, ability, and military prowess.

  lictor Bodyguards, usually freedmen, who accompanied magistrates and the Flamen Dialis, bearing the fasces. They summoned Assemblies, attended public sacrifices, and carried out sentences of punishment.

  ludus, pl. ludi Public religious festivals put on by the state. There were a number of long-established ludi, the earliest being the Roman Games (ludi Romani) in honor of Jupiter Optimus Maximus and held in September. The ludi Megalenses were held in April, as were the ludi Cereri in honor of Ceres, the grain goddess, and the ludi Floriae in honor of Flora, the goddess of flowers. The ludi Apollinares were celebrated in July. In October the ludi Capitolini; the final games of the year were the Plebian Games (ludi Plebeii) in November. Games usually ran for several days except for the Capitoline games, which ran for a single day. Games featured theatrical performances, processions, sacrifices, public banquets, and chariot races. They did not feature gladiatorial combats. The gladiatorial games, called munera, were put on by individuals as funeral rites.

  maiestas A crime against “the majesty and dignity of the Roman people.” Not quite treason, but still a serious offense, it became a catch-all charge to use against one’s political enemies in the late Republic.

  Master of Horse In Latin Magister Equitum. A dictator’s second in command. In times of emergency, the Senate could appoint a dictator who would have absolute imperium. The dictator would appoint a Master of Horse who would carry out his orders. Marc Antony (Marcus Antonius) was Julius Caesar’s Master of Horse.

  military terms The Roman legionary system was quite unlike any military organization in existence today. The regimental system used by all modern armies date from the Wars of Religion of the sixteenth century. These began with companies under captains that grouped into regiments under colonels, then regiments grouped into divisions under generals. By the Napoleonic wars they had acquired higher organizations such as corps, army groups, and so forth, with an orderly chain of command from the marshal down through the varying degrees of generals, colonels, majors, captains, sergeants, corporals, and finally the privates in the ranks.

  The Roman legions had nothing resembling such an organization. At the time of the SPQR novels the strength of a legion was theoretically 6,000 men, but the usual strength was around 4,800. These were divided into sixty centuries. Originally, a century had included one hundred men, but during this period there were about eighty. Each century was commanded by a centurion, making sixty centurions to the legion. Six centuries made a cohort. Each centurion had an optio as his second in command. The centurionate was not a single rank, but a complex of hierarchy and seniority, many details of which are obscure. We know that there were first-rank and second-rank centurions. The senior centurion of the legion was primus pilus, the “first spear.” He was centurion of the first century of the first cohort and outranked all others. Centurions were promoted from the ranks for ability and they were the nearest thing a legion had to permanent officers. All others were elected or appointed politicians.

  Legionaries were Roman citizens. They fought as heavy infantry, fully armored and armed with the heavy javelin (pilum), the short Spanish sword (gladius Hispaniensis), and the straight, double-edged dagger (pugio). They carried a very large shield (scutum) that at that time was usually oval and curved to fit around the body. Besides holding the center of the battle line, legionaries were engineers and operated the siege weapons: catapults, team-operated crossbows, and so forth.

  Attached to each legion were usually an equal number of auxilia, noncitizen troops often supplied by allies. These were lightly armed troops, skirmishers, archers, slingers, and other missile troops, and cavalry. The legion had a small citizen cavalry force but depended upon the auxilia for the bulk of the cavalry. Through long service an auxiliary could
earn citizen status, which was hereditary: his sons could serve in the legions. Auxilia received lower pay and had lower status, but they were essential when operating in broken terrain or heavy forest, where the legions could not be used to advantage. In battle they often held the flanks and usually, with the cavalry, were charged with pursuing a broken and fleeing enemy, preventing them from re-forming or counterattacking.

  There were other formations within a legion, some of them obscure. One was the antesignani, “those who fight before the standards.” Already nearly obsolete, they were apparently an elite strike force, though how it was manned and used is uncertain. It seems exceptional bravery was required for assignment to the antesignani.

  In Decius’s time the legions were still formed as a unit, served for a number of years, then discharged collectively. Even when on many years’ service, they were ceremonially disbanded, then re-formed every year, with the soldier’s oath renewed each time. This archaic practice was extremely troublesome. When a few years later Augustus reformed the military system, legions became permanent institutions, their strength kept up by continuous enlistment of new soldiers as old ones retired or died. Many of the Augustan legions remained in service continuously for centuries.

  The commander of a legion might be a consul or praetor, but more often he was a proconsul or propraetor who, having served his year in Rome, went out to govern a province. Within his province he was commander of its legions. He might appoint a legate (legatus) as his assistant. The legate was subject to approval by the Senate. He might choose a more experienced military man to handle the army work while the promagistrate (proconsul, propraetor, proquaestor, or procurator) concentrated upon civil affairs; but a successful war was important to a political career, while enriching the commander. For an extraordinary command, such as Caesar’s in Gaul or Pompey’s against the pirates, the promagistrate might be permitted a number of legates.

  Under the commander were Tribunes of the Soldiers, usually young men embarking upon their political careers. Their duties were entirely at the discretion of the commander. Caesar usually told his tribunes to sit back, keep their mouths shut, and watch the experienced men work. But a military tribune might be given a responsible position, even command of a legion. The young Cassius Longinus as tribune prosecuted a successful war in Syria after his commander was dead.

  mundus, pl. mundi Literally, “mouth.” A cave or opening in the ground believed to lead to the underworld and used to contact the dead.

  munera Special games, not part of the official calendar, at which gladiators were exhibited. They were originally funeral games and were always dedicated to the dead.

  nefasti The eighty-four days when business was prohibited.

  nones The seventh of March, May, July, and October; the fifth of the remaining months.

  October Horse On the ides of October a rite to Mars was celebrated in a two-horse chariot race on the Campus Martius (Field of Mars). The October Horse, i.e., the outer horse of the winning pair (the strongest runner), was sacrificed to Mars. The tail was cut off and taken to the Regia (the traditional home of Numa, Rome’s second king who established the office of pontifex maximus, and the home of subsequent pontifexes maximus) where the horse’s blood was dripped on its hearth. The blood from the sacrifice was collected in a bowl and given to the Vestal Virgins to use in other ceremonies. The horse was also decapitated, and two teams, one from the Subura district and the other from the Via Sacra, fought for the horse’s head. The winner who brought back the head to his district was then a local hero who supposedly brought good luck to the area.

  offices The political system of the Roman Republic was completely different from any today. The terms we have borrowed from the Romans have very different meanings in the modern context. “Senators” were not elected and did not represent a particular district. “Dictator” was a temporary office conferred by the Senate in times of emergency. “Republic” simply meant a governmental system that was not a hereditary monarchy. By the time of the SPQR series, the power of former Roman kings was shared among a number of citizen assemblies.

  Tribunes of the People were representatives of the plebeians, with power to introduce laws and to veto actions of the Senate. Only plebeians could hold the office, which carried no imperium. Tribunes of the Soldiers were elected from among the young men of senatorial or equestrian rank to be assistants to generals. Usually it was the first step of a man’s political career.

  A Roman embarked upon a public career followed the cursus honorum, i.e., the “path of honor.” After doing staffwork for officials, he began climbing the ladder of office. These were taken in order as follows:

  The lowest elective office was quaestor: bookkeeper and paymaster for the Treasury, the Grain Office, and the provincial governors. These men did the scut work of the Roman world. After the quaestorship he was eligible for the Senate, a nonelective office, which had to be ratified by the censors; if none were in office, he had to be ratified by the next censors to be elected.

  Next were the aediles. Roughly speaking, these were city managers, responsible for the upkeep of public buildings, streets, sewers, markets, brothels, etc. There were two types: the plebeian aediles and the curule aediles. The curule aediles could sit in judgment on civil cases involving markets and currency, while the plebeian aediles could only levy fines. Otherwise their duties were the same. The state only provided a tiny stipend for improvements, and the rest was the aedile’s problem. If he put on (and paid for) splendid games, he was sure of election to higher office.

  Third was praetor, an office with real power. Praetors were judges, but they could command armies, and after a year in office they could go out to govern provinces, where real wealth could be won, earned, or stolen. In the late Republic, there were eight praetors. Senior was the praetor urbanus, who heard civil cases between citizens of Rome. The praetor peregrinus (praetor of the foreigners) heard cases involving foreigners. The others presided over criminal courts. After leaving office, the ex-praetors became propraetors and went on to govern propraetorian provinces with full imperium.

  The highest office was consul, supreme office of power during the Roman Republic. Two were elected each year. Consuls called meetings of the Senate and presided there. The office carried full imperium and they could lead armies. On the expiration of their year in office, exconsuls were usually assigned the best provinces to rule as proconsul. A proconsul had the same insignia and the same number of lectors as a consul. His power was absolute within his province. The most important commands always went to proconsuls.

  Censors were elected every five years. This was the capstone to a political career, but it did not carry imperium and there was no foreign command afterward. Censors conducted the census, purged the Senate of unworthy members, doled out the public contracts, confirmed new senators in office, and conducted the lustrum, a ritual of purification. They could forbid certain religious practices or luxuries deemed bad for public morals or generally “un-Roman.” There were two censors, and each could overrule the other. They were usually elected from among the exconsuls.

  Under the Sullan Constitution, the quaestorship was the minimum requirement for membership in the Senate. The majority of senators had held that office and never held another. Membership in the Senate was for life, unless expelled by the censors.

  No Roman official could be prosecuted while in office, but he could be after he stepped down. Malfeasance in office was one of the most common court charges.

  The most extraordinary office was dictator. In times of emergency, the Senate could instruct the consuls to appoint a dictator, who could wield absolute power for six months, after which he had to step down from office. Unlike all other officials, a dictator was unaccountable: he could not be prosecuted for his acts in office. The last true dictator was appointed in the third century B.C. The dictatorships of Sulla and Julius Caesar were unconstitutional.

  orders The Roman hierarchy was divided into a number of orders (ordin
es). At the top was the Senatorial Order (Ordo Senatus) made up of the senators. Originally the Senate had been a part of the Equestrian Order, but the dictator Sulla made them a separate order.

  Next came the Equestrian Order (Ordo Equestris). This was a property qualification. Men above a certain property rating, determined every five years by the censors, belonged to the Equestrian Order, so named because in ancient times, at the annual hosting, these wealthier men brought horses and served in the cavalry. By the time of the SPQR novels, they had lost all military nature. The equestrians (equites) were the wealthiest class, the bankers and businessmen, and after the Sullan reforms they supplied the jurymen. If an eques won election to the quaestorship, he entered the Senatorial Order. Collectively, they wielded immense power. They often financed the political careers of senators and their business dealings abroad often shaped Roman foreign policy.

  Last came the Plebeian Order (Ordo Plebis). Pretty much everybody else, and not really an order in the sense of the other two, since plebeians might be equestrians or senators. Nevertheless, as the mass of the citizenry they were regarded as virtually a separate power and they elected the Tribunes of the People, who were in many ways the most powerful politicians of this time.

  Slaves and foreigners had no status and did not belong to an order.

  optimates The party of the “best men.” Patricians were all but extinct, only a few families left. Caesar was a patrician, but he was a in the popular assemblies.

  palestra Greek exercise facilities. See gymnasium.

  patrician The noble class of Rome.

  peculium The savings of a slave with his master’s consent put toward his manumission.

  pedagogues Greek for a slave who accompanied children to school.

  pomerium The sacred boundary of the City of Rome.

  popular assemblies There were several of these. They were nonsenatorial and had varying powers. The comitia centuriata included the entire citizenry. The consilium plebis was restricted to the plebeians. The comitia tribute consisted of the citizenry organized in “tribes” (voting groups.)